Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide

]> Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide An in-depth exploration of the art of shell scripting Mendel Cooper

thegrendel@theriver.com

5.4.12 23 September 2008 978-1-4357-5219-1 5.2 16 Mar 2008 mc 'SILVERBERRY' release: Important Update. 5.3 05 May 2008 mc 'GOLDENBERRY' release: Minor Update. 5.4 21 July 2008 mc 'ANGLEBERRY' release: Major Update. This tutorial assumes no previous knowledge of scripting or programming, but progresses rapidly toward an intermediate/advanced level of instruction . . . all the while sneaking in little nuggets of UNIX wisdom and lore. It serves as a textbook, a manual for self-study, and a reference and source of knowledge on shell scripting techniques. The exercises and heavily-commented examples invite active reader participation, under the premise that the only way to really learn scripting is to write scripts. This book is suitable for classroom use as a general introduction to programming concepts. The latest update of this document, as an archived, bzip2-ed tarball including both the SGML source and rendered HTML, may be downloaded from the author's home site. A pdf version is also available ( pdf mirror site). See the change log for a revision history. For Anita, the source of all the magic Introduction The shell is a command interpreter. More than just the insulating layer between the operating system kernel and the user, it's also a fairly powerful programming language. A shell program, called a script, is an easy-to-use tool for building applications by gluing together system calls, tools, utilities, and compiled binaries. Virtually the entire repertoire of UNIX commands, utilities, and tools is available for invocation by a shell script. If that were not enough, internal shell commands, such as testing and loop constructs, lend additional power and flexibility to scripts. Shell scripts are especially well suited for administrative system tasks and other routine repetitive tasks not requiring the bells and whistles of a full-blown tightly structured programming language. Why Shell Programming? No programming language is perfect. There is not even a single best language; there are only languages well suited or perhaps poorly suited for particular purposes. --Herbert Mayer A working knowledge of shell scripting is essential to anyone wishing to become reasonably proficient at system administration, even if they do not anticipate ever having to actually write a script. Consider that as a Linux machine boots up, it executes the shell scripts in /etc/rc.d to restore the system configuration and set up services. A detailed understanding of these startup scripts is important for analyzing the behavior of a system, and possibly modifying it. The craft of scripting is not hard to master, since the scripts can be built in bite-sized sections and there is only a fairly small set of shell-specific operators and options These are referred to as builtins, features internal to the shell. to learn. The syntax is simple and straightforward, similar to that of invoking and chaining together utilities at the command line, and there are only a few rules governing their use. Most short scripts work right the first time, and debugging even the longer ones is straightforward. A shell script is a quick-and-dirty method of prototyping a complex application. Getting even a limited subset of the functionality to work in a script is often a useful first stage in project development. This way, the structure of the application can be tested and played with, and the major pitfalls found before proceeding to the final coding in C, C++, Java, Perl, or Python. Shell scripting hearkens back to the classic UNIX philosophy of breaking complex projects into simpler subtasks, of chaining together components and utilities. Many consider this a better, or at least more esthetically pleasing approach to problem solving than using one of the new generation of high powered all-in-one languages, such as Perl, which attempt to be all things to all people, but at the cost of forcing you to alter your thinking processes to fit the tool. According to Herbert Mayer, a useful language needs arrays, pointers, and a generic mechanism for building data structures. By these criteria, shell scripting falls somewhat short of being useful. Or, perhaps not. . . . When not to use shell scripts Resource-intensive tasks, especially where speed is a factor (sorting, hashing, recursion Although recursion is possible in a shell script, it tends to be slow and its implementation is often an ugly kludge. ...) Procedures involving heavy-duty math operations, especially floating point arithmetic, arbitrary precision calculations, or complex numbers (use C++ or FORTRAN instead) Cross-platform portability required (use C or Java instead) Complex applications, where structured programming is a necessity (type-checking of variables, function prototypes, etc.) Mission-critical applications upon which you are betting the future of the company Situations where security is important, where you need to guarantee the integrity of your system and protect against intrusion, cracking, and vandalism Project consists of subcomponents with interlocking dependencies Extensive file operations required (Bash is limited to serial file access, and that only in a particularly clumsy and inefficient line-by-line fashion.) Need native support for multi-dimensional arrays Need data structures, such as linked lists or trees Need to generate / manipulate graphics or GUIs Need direct access to system hardware Need port or socket I/O Need to use libraries or interface with legacy code Proprietary, closed-source applications (Shell scripts put the source code right out in the open for all the world to see.) If any of the above applies, consider a more powerful scripting language -- perhaps Perl, Tcl, Python, Ruby -- or possibly a compiled language such as C, C++, or Java. Even then, prototyping the application as a shell script might still be a useful development step. We will be using Bash, an acronym for Bourne-Again shell and a pun on Stephen Bourne's now classic Bourne shell. Bash has become a de facto standard for shell scripting on most flavors of UNIX. Most of the principles this book covers apply equally well to scripting with other shells, such as the Korn Shell, from which Bash derives some of its features, Many of the features of ksh88, and even a few from the updated ksh93 have been merged into Bash. and the C Shell and its variants. (Note that C Shell programming is not recommended due to certain inherent problems, as pointed out in an October, 1993 Usenet post by Tom Christiansen.) What follows is a tutorial on shell scripting. It relies heavily on examples to illustrate various features of the shell. The example scripts work -- they've been tested, insofar as was possible -- and some of them are even useful in real life. The reader can play with the actual working code of the examples in the source archive (scriptname.sh or scriptname.bash), By convention, user-written shell scripts that are Bourne shell compliant generally take a name with a .sh extension. System scripts, such as those found in /etc/rc.d, do not conform to this nomenclature. give them execute permission (chmod u+rx scriptname), then run them to see what happens. Should the source archive not be available, then cut-and-paste from the HTML or pdf rendered versions. Be aware that some of the scripts presented here introduce features before they are explained, and this may require the reader to temporarily skip ahead for enlightenment. Unless otherwise noted, the author of this book wrote the example scripts that follow. His countenance was bold and bashed not. --Edmund Spenser Starting Off With a Sha-Bang Shell programming is a 1950s juke box . . . --Larry Wall In the simplest case, a script is nothing more than a list of system commands stored in a file. At the very least, this saves the effort of retyping that particular sequence of commands each time it is invoked. <firstterm>cleanup</firstterm>: A script to clean up the log files in /var/log &ex1; There is nothing unusual here, only a set of commands that could just as easily be invoked one by one from the command line on the console or in an xterm. The advantages of placing the commands in a script go beyond not having to retype them time and again. The script becomes a tool, and can easily be modified or customized for a particular application. <firstterm>cleanup</firstterm>: An improved clean-up script &ex1a; Now that's beginning to look like a real script. But we can go even farther . . . <firstterm>cleanup</firstterm>: An enhanced and generalized version of above scripts. &ex2; Since you may not wish to wipe out the entire system log, this version of the script keeps the last section of the message log intact. You will constantly discover ways of fine-tuning previously written scripts for increased effectiveness. The sha-bang sha-bang ( #! #!) Also seen in the literature as she-bang or sh-bang. This derives from the concatenation of the tokens sharp (#) and bang (!). at the head of a script tells your system that this file is a set of commands to be fed to the command interpreter indicated. The #! is actually a two-byte Some flavors of UNIX (those based on 4.2 BSD) allegedly take a four-byte magic number, requiring a blank after the ! -- #! /bin/sh. According to Sven Mascheck this is probably a myth. magic number magic number, a special marker that designates a file type, or in this case an executable shell script (type man magic for more details on this fascinating topic). Immediately following the sha-bang is a path name. This is the path to the program that interprets the commands in the script, whether it be a shell, a programming language, or a utility. This command interpreter then executes the commands in the script, starting at the top (line following the sha-bang line), ignoring comments. The #! line in a shell script will be the first thing the command interpreter (sh or bash) sees. Since this line begins with a #, it will be correctly interpreted as a comment when the command interpreter finally executes the script. The line has already served its purpose - calling the command interpreter. If, in fact, the script includes an extra #! line, then bash will interpret it as a comment. #!/bin/bash echo "Part 1 of script." a=1 #!/bin/bash # This does *not* launch a new script. echo "Part 2 of script." echo $a # Value of $a stays at 1. #!/bin/sh #!/bin/bash #!/usr/bin/perl #!/usr/bin/tcl #!/bin/sed -f #!/usr/awk -f Each of the above script header lines calls a different command interpreter, be it /bin/sh, the default shell (bash in a Linux system) or otherwise. This allows some cute tricks. #!/bin/rm # Self-deleting script. # Nothing much seems to happen when you run this... except that the file disappears. WHATEVER=65 echo "This line will never print (betcha!)." exit $WHATEVER # Doesn't matter. The script will not exit here. # Try an echo $? after script termination. # You'll get a 0, not a 65. Also, try starting a README file with a #!/bin/more, and making it executable. The result is a self-listing documentation file. (A here document using cat is possibly a better alternative -- see ). Using #!/bin/sh, the default Bourne shell in most commercial variants of UNIX, makes the script portable to non-Linux machines, though you sacrifice Bash-specific features. The script will, however, conform to the POSIX Portable Operating System Interface, an attempt to standardize UNIX-like OSes. The POSIX specifications are listed on the Open Group site. sh standard. Note that the path given at the sha-bang must be correct, otherwise an error message -- usually Command not found. -- will be the only result of running the script. To avoid this possibility, a script may begin with a #!/bin/env bash sha-bang line. This may be useful on UNIX machines where bash is not located in /bin #! can be omitted if the script consists only of a set of generic system commands, using no internal shell directives. The second example, above, requires the initial #!, since the variable assignment line, lines=50, uses a shell-specific construct. If Bash is your default shell, then the #! isn't necessary at the beginning of a script. However, if launching a script from a different shell, such as tcsh, then you will need the #!. Note again that #!/bin/sh invokes the default shell interpreter, which defaults to /bin/bash on a Linux machine. This tutorial encourages a modular approach to constructing a script. Make note of and collect boilerplate code snippets that might be useful in future scripts. Eventually you will build quite an extensive library of nifty routines. As an example, the following script prolog tests whether the script has been invoked with the correct number of parameters. E_WRONG_ARGS=65 script_parameters="-a -h -m -z" # -a = all, -h = help, etc. if [ $# -ne $Number_of_expected_args ] then echo "Usage: `basename $0` $script_parameters" # `basename $0` is the script's filename. exit $E_WRONG_ARGS fi Many times, you will write a script that carries out one particular task. The first script in this chapter is an example of this. Later, it might occur to you to generalize the script to do other, similar tasks. Replacing the literal (hard-wired) constants by variables is a step in that direction, as is replacing repetitive code blocks by functions. Invoking the script Having written the script, you can invoke it by sh scriptname, Caution: invoking a Bash script by sh scriptname turns off Bash-specific extensions, and the script may therefore fail to execute. or alternatively bash scriptname. (Not recommended is using sh <scriptname, since this effectively disables reading from stdin within the script.) Much more convenient is to make the script itself directly executable with a chmod. Either: chmod 555 scriptname (gives everyone read/execute permission) A script needs read, as well as execute permission for it to run, since the shell needs to be able to read it. or chmod +rx scriptname (gives everyone read/execute permission) chmod u+rx scriptname (gives only the script owner read/execute permission) Having made the script executable, you may now test it by ./scriptname. Why not simply invoke the script with scriptname? If the directory you are in ($PWD) is where scriptname is located, why doesn't this work? This fails because, for security reasons, the current directory (./) is not by default included in a user's $PATH. It is therefore necessary to explicitly invoke the script in the current directory with a ./scriptname. If it begins with a sha-bang line, invoking the script calls the correct command interpreter to run it. As a final step, after testing and debugging, you would likely want to move it to /usr/local/bin (as root, of course), to make the script available to yourself and all other users as a systemwide executable. The script could then be invoked by simply typing scriptname [ENTER] from the command line. Preliminary Exercises System administrators often write scripts to automate common tasks. Give several instances where such scripts would be useful. Write a script that upon invocation shows the time and date, lists all logged-in users, and gives the system uptime. The script then saves this information to a logfile. Basics Special Characters What makes a character special? If it has a meaning beyond its literal meaning, a meta-meaning, then we refer to it as a special character. <anchor id="scharlist1">Special Characters Found In Scripts and Elsewhere # # special character # comment Comments Lines beginning with a # (with the exception of #!) are comments and will not be executed. # This line is a comment. Comments may also occur following the end of a command. echo "A comment will follow." # Comment here. # ^ Note whitespace before # Comments may also follow whitespace at the beginning of a line. # A tab precedes this comment. A command may not follow a comment on the same line. There is no method of terminating the comment, in order for live code to begin on the same line. Use a new line for the next command. Of course, a quoted or an escaped # in an echo statement does not begin a comment. Likewise, a # appears in certain parameter-substitution constructs and in numerical constant expressions. echo "The # here does not begin a comment." echo 'The # here does not begin a comment.' echo The \# here does not begin a comment. echo The # here begins a comment. echo ${PATH#*:} # Parameter substitution, not a comment. echo $(( 2#101011 )) # Base conversion, not a comment. # Thanks, S.C. The standard quoting and escape characters (" ' \) escape the #. Certain pattern matching operations also use the #. ; ; special character ; separator Command separator [semicolon] Permits putting two or more commands on the same line. echo hello; echo there if [ -x "$filename" ]; then # Note that "if" and "then" need whitespace #+ separation. Why? echo "File $filename exists."; cp $filename $filename.bak else echo "File $filename not found."; touch $filename fi; echo "File test complete." Note that the ; sometimes needs to be escaped. ;; ;; special character case ;; Terminator in a <link linkend="caseesac1">case</link> option [double semicolon] case "$variable" in abc) echo "\$variable = abc" ;; xyz) echo "\$variable = xyz" ;; esac . . special character . dot command source <quote>dot</quote> command [period] Equivalent to source (see ). This is a bash builtin. . . special character . filename part of a filename <quote>dot</quote>, as a component of a filename When working with filenames, a leading dot is the prefix of a hidden file, a file that an ls will not normally show. bash$ touch .hidden-file bash$ ls -l total 10 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo 4034 Jul 18 22:04 data1.addressbook -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo 4602 May 25 13:58 data1.addressbook.bak -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo 877 Dec 17 2000 employment.addressbook bash$ ls -al total 14 drwxrwxr-x 2 bozo bozo 1024 Aug 29 20:54 ./ drwx------ 52 bozo bozo 3072 Aug 29 20:51 ../ -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4034 Jul 18 22:04 data1.addressbook -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4602 May 25 13:58 data1.addressbook.bak -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 877 Dec 17 2000 employment.addressbook -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 29 20:54 .hidden-file When considering directory names, a single dot represents the current working directory, and two dots denote the parent directory. bash$ pwd /home/bozo/projects bash$ cd . bash$ pwd /home/bozo/projects bash$ cd .. bash$ pwd /home/bozo/ The dot often appears as the destination (directory) of a file movement command, in this context meaning current directory. bash$ cp /home/bozo/current_work/junk/* . Copy all the junk files to $PWD. . . special character . character match match single character <quote>dot</quote> character match When matching characters, as part of a regular expression, a dot matches a single character. " <link linkend="dblquo">partial quoting</link> [double quote] "STRING" preserves (from interpretation) most of the special characters within STRING. See . ' <link linkend="snglquo">full quoting</link> [single quote] 'STRING' preserves all special characters within STRING. This is a stronger form of quoting than "STRING". See . , <link linkend="commaop">comma operator</link> The comma operator An operator is an agent that carries out an operation. Some examples are the common arithmetic operators, + - * /. In Bash, there is some overlap between the concepts of operator and keyword. links together a series of arithmetic operations. All are evaluated, but only the last one is returned. let "t2 = ((a = 9, 15 / 3))" # Set "a = 9" and "t2 = 15 / 3" The comma operator can also concatenate strings. for file in /{,usr/}bin/*calc # ^ Find all executable files ending in "calc" #+ in /bin and /usr/bin directories. do if [ -x "$file" ] then echo $file fi done # /bin/ipcalc # /usr/bin/kcalc # /usr/bin/oidcalc # /usr/bin/oocalc # Thank you, Rory Winston, for pointing this out. \ <link linkend="escp">escape</link> [backslash] A quoting mechanism for single characters. \X escapes the character X. This has the effect of quoting X, equivalent to 'X'. The \ may be used to quote " and ', so they are expressed literally. See for an in-depth explanation of escaped characters. / Filename path separator [forward slash] Separates the components of a filename (as in /home/bozo/projects/Makefile). This is also the division arithmetic operator. ` <link linkend="commandsubref">command substitution</link> The `command` construct makes available the output of command for assignment to a variable. This is also known as backquotes or backticks. : : special character : null command true endless loop null command [colon] This is the shell equivalent of a NOP (no op, a do-nothing operation). It may be considered a synonym for the shell builtin true. The : command is itself a Bash builtin, and its exit status is true (0). : echo $? # 0 Endless loop: while : do operation-1 operation-2 ... operation-n done # Same as: # while true # do # ... # done Placeholder in if/then test: if condition then : # Do nothing and branch ahead else # Or else ... take-some-action fi Provide a placeholder where a binary operation is expected, see and default parameters. : ${username=`whoami`} # ${username=`whoami`} Gives an error without the leading : # unless "username" is a command or builtin... Provide a placeholder where a command is expected in a here document. See . Evaluate string of variables using parameter substitution (as in ). : ${HOSTNAME?} ${USER?} ${MAIL?} # Prints error message #+ if one or more of essential environmental variables not set. Variable expansion / substring replacement. In combination with the > redirection operator, truncates a file to zero length, without changing its permissions. If the file did not previously exist, creates it. : > data.xxx # File "data.xxx" now empty. # Same effect as cat /dev/null >data.xxx # However, this does not fork a new process, since ":" is a builtin. See also . In combination with the >> redirection operator, has no effect on a pre-existing target file (: >> target_file). If the file did not previously exist, creates it. This applies to regular files, not pipes, symlinks, and certain special files. May be used to begin a comment line, although this is not recommended. Using # for a comment turns off error checking for the remainder of that line, so almost anything may appear in a comment. However, this is not the case with :. : This is a comment that generates an error, ( if [ $x -eq 3] ). The : also serves as a field separator, in /etc/passwd, and in the $PATH variable. bash$ echo $PATH /usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:/sbin:/usr/sbin:/usr/games ! ! special character ! not logical not reverse (or negate) the sense of a test or exit status [bang] The ! operator inverts the exit status of the command to which it is applied (see ). It also inverts the meaning of a test operator. This can, for example, change the sense of equal ( = ) to not-equal ( != ). The ! operator is a Bash keyword. In a different context, the ! also appears in indirect variable references. In yet another context, from the command line, the ! invokes the Bash history mechanism (see ). Note that within a script, the history mechanism is disabled. * * special character * wild card globbing regular expression wild card [asterisk] The * character serves as a wild card for filename expansion in globbing. By itself, it matches every filename in a given directory. bash$ echo * abs-book.sgml add-drive.sh agram.sh alias.sh The * also represents any number (or zero) characters in a regular expression. * * special character * multiplication exponentiation arithmetic operator <link linkend="arops1">arithmetic operator</link> In the context of arithmetic operations, the * denotes multiplication. A double asterisk, **, is the exponentiation operator. ? ? special character ? test operator test token test operator Within certain expressions, the ? indicates a test for a condition. In a double-parentheses construct, the ? can serve as an element of a C-style trinary operator, ?:. (( var0 = var1<98?9:21 )) # ^ ^ # if [ "$var1" -lt 98 ] # then # var0=9 # else # var0=21 # fi In a parameter substitution expression, the ? tests whether a variable has been set. ? ? special character ? wild card globbing regular expression wild card The ? character serves as a single-character wild card for filename expansion in globbing, as well as representing one character in an extended regular expression. $ $ special character $ variable substitution <link linkend="varsubn">Variable substitution</link> (contents of a variable) var1=5 var2=23skidoo echo $var1 # 5 echo $var2 # 23skidoo A $ prefixing a variable name indicates the value the variable holds. $ $ special character $ regular expression end of line end-of-line In a regular expression, a $ addresses the end of a line of text. ${} ${} special character ${} parameter substitution <link linkend="paramsubref">Parameter substitution</link> $* $@ $* special character $* $@ positional parameters $@ <link linkend="appref">positional parameters</link> $? $? special character ? exit status variable exit status exit status variable The $? variable holds the exit status of a command, a function, or of the script itself. $$ $$ special character $$ process ID variable process ID process ID variable The $$ variable holds the process ID A PID, or process ID, is a number assigned to a running process. The PIDs of running processes may be viewed with a ps command. Definition: A process is an executing program, sometimes referred to as a job. of the script in which it appears. () command group (a=hello; echo $a) A listing of commands within parentheses starts a subshell. Variables inside parentheses, within the subshell, are not visible to the rest of the script. The parent process, the script, cannot read variables created in the child process, the subshell. a=123 ( a=321; ) echo "a = $a" # a = 123 # "a" within parentheses acts like a local variable. array initialization Array=(element1 element2 element3) {xxx,yyy,zzz..} special character {} brace expansion {xxx,yyy,zzz,...} Brace expansion cat {file1,file2,file3} > combined_file # Concatenates the files file1, file2, and file3 into combined_file. cp file22.{txt,backup} # Copies "file22.txt" to "file22.backup" A command may act upon a comma-separated list of file specs within braces. The shell does the brace expansion. The command itself acts upon the result of the expansion. Filename expansion (globbing) applies to the file specs between the braces. No spaces allowed within the braces unless the spaces are quoted or escaped. echo {file1,file2}\ :{\ A," B",' C'} file1 : A file1 : B file1 : C file2 : A file2 : B file2 : C {a..z} special character {} extended brace expansion {a..z} Extended Brace expansion echo {a..z} # a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z # Echoes characters between a and z. echo {0..3} # 0 1 2 3 # Echoes characters between 0 and 3. The {a..z} extended brace expansion construction is a feature introduced in version 3 of Bash. {} {} special character {} block of code Block of code [curly brackets] Also referred to as an inline group, this construct, in effect, creates an anonymous function (a function without a name). However, unlike in a standard function, the variables inside a code block remain visible to the remainder of the script. bash$ { local a; a=123; } bash: local: can only be used in a function a=123 { a=321; } echo "a = $a" # a = 321 (value inside code block) # Thanks, S.C. The code block enclosed in braces may have I/O redirected to and from it. Code blocks and I/O redirection &ex8; Saving the output of a code block to a file &rpmcheck; Unlike a command group within (parentheses), as above, a code block enclosed by {braces} will not normally launch a subshell. Exception: a code block in braces as part of a pipe may run as a subshell. ls | { read firstline; read secondline; } # Error. The code block in braces runs as a subshell, #+ so the output of "ls" cannot be passed to variables within the block. echo "First line is $firstline; second line is $secondline" # Won't work. # Thanks, S.C. {} placeholder for text Used after xargs (replace strings option). The {} double curly brackets are a placeholder for output text. ls . | xargs -i -t cp ./{} $1 # ^^ ^^ # From "ex42.sh" (copydir.sh) example. anchor id="semicolonesc"> {} \; pathname Mostly used in find constructs. This is not a shell builtin. The ; ends the option of a find command sequence. It needs to be escaped to protect it from interpretation by the shell. [ ] [] special character [ ] test test Test expression between [ ]. Note that [ is part of the shell builtin test (and a synonym for it), not a link to the external command /usr/bin/test. [[ ]] [[]] special character [[ ]] test test Test expression between [[ ]]. More flexible than the single-bracket [ ] test, this is a shell keyword. See the discussion on the [[ ... ]] construct. [ ] [ ] special character array_element[ ] array element array element In the context of an array, brackets set off the numbering of each element of that array. Array[1]=slot_1 echo ${Array[1]} [ ] [ ] special character character range regular expression range of characters As part of a regular expression, brackets delineate a range of characters to match. (( )) (( )) special character (( )) integer comparison integer expansion Expand and evaluate integer expression between (( )). See the discussion on the (( ... )) construct. > &> >& >> < <> > >& >> < special character > special character >& special character >> special character < redirection <link linkend="ioredirref">redirection</link> scriptname >filename redirects the output of scriptname to file filename. Overwrite filename if it already exists. command &>filename redirects both the stdout and the stderr of command to filename. command >&2 redirects stdout of command to stderr. scriptname >>filename appends the output of scriptname to file filename. If filename does not already exist, it is created. [i]<>filename opens file filename for reading and writing, and assigns file descriptor i to it. If filename does not exist, it is created. <link linkend="processsubref">process substitution</link> (command)> <(command) In a different context, the < and > characters act as string comparison operators. In yet another context, the < and > characters act as integer comparison operators. See also . << redirection used in a <link linkend="heredocref">here document</link> <<< redirection used in a <link linkend="herestringsref">here string</link> < > < special character < > ASCII comparison > <link linkend="ltref">ASCII comparison</link> veg1=carrots veg2=tomatoes if [[ "$veg1" < "$veg2" ]] then echo "Although $veg1 precede $veg2 in the dictionary," echo -n "this does not necessarily imply anything " echo "about my culinary preferences." else echo "What kind of dictionary are you using, anyhow?" fi \< \> \< regular expression \< > word boundary > <link linkend="anglebrac">word boundary</link> in a <link linkend="regexref">regular expression</link> bash$ grep '\<the\>' textfile | | special character | pipe pipe Passes the output (stdout of a previous command to the input (stdin) of the next one, or to the shell. This is a method of chaining commands together. echo ls -l | sh # Passes the output of "echo ls -l" to the shell, #+ with the same result as a simple "ls -l". cat *.lst | sort | uniq # Merges and sorts all ".lst" files, then deletes duplicate lines. A pipe, as a classic method of interprocess communication, sends the stdout of one process to the stdin of another. In a typical case, a command, such as cat or echo, pipes a stream of data to a filter, a command that transforms its input for processing. Even as in olden times a philtre denoted a potion alleged to have magical transformative powers, so does a UNIX filter transform its target in (rougly) analogous fashion. (The coder who comes up with a love philtre that runs on a Linux machine will likely win accolades and honors.) cat $filename1 $filename2 | grep $search_word For an interesting note on the complexity of using UNIX pipes, see the UNIX FAQ, Part 3. The output of a command or commands may be piped to a script. #!/bin/bash # uppercase.sh : Changes input to uppercase. tr 'a-z' 'A-Z' # Letter ranges must be quoted #+ to prevent filename generation from single-letter filenames. exit 0 Now, let us pipe the output of ls -l to this script. bash$ ls -l | ./uppercase.sh -RW-RW-R-- 1 BOZO BOZO 109 APR 7 19:49 1.TXT -RW-RW-R-- 1 BOZO BOZO 109 APR 14 16:48 2.TXT -RW-R--R-- 1 BOZO BOZO 725 APR 20 20:56 DATA-FILE The stdout of each process in a pipe must be read as the stdin of the next. If this is not the case, the data stream will block, and the pipe will not behave as expected. cat file1 file2 | ls -l | sort # The output from "cat file1 file2" disappears. A pipe runs as a child process, and therefore cannot alter script variables. variable="initial_value" echo "new_value" | read variable echo "variable = $variable" # variable = initial_value If one of the commands in the pipe aborts, this prematurely terminates execution of the pipe. Called a broken pipe, this condition sends a SIGPIPE signal. >| >| special character >| redirection force noclobber force redirection (even if the <link linkend="noclobberref">noclobber option</link> is set) This will forcibly overwrite an existing file. || || special character || or logical operator <link linkend="orref">OR logical operator</link> In a test construct, the || operator causes a return of 0 (success) if either of the linked test conditions is true. & Run job in background A command followed by an & will run in the background. bash$ sleep 10 & [1] 850 [1]+ Done sleep 10 Within a script, commands and even loops may run in the background. Running a loop in the background &bgloop; A command run in the background within a script may cause the script to hang, waiting for a keystroke. Fortunately, there is a remedy for this. && && special character && and logical operator <link linkend="logops1">AND logical operator</link> In a test construct, the && operator causes a return of 0 (success) only if both the linked test conditions are true. - option, prefix Option flag for a command or filter. Prefix for an operator. Prefix for a default parameter in parameter substitution. COMMAND -[Option1][Option2][...] ls -al sort -dfu $filename if [ $file1 -ot $file2 ] then # ^ echo "File $file1 is older than $file2." fi if [ "$a" -eq "$b" ] then ^ echo "$a is equal to $b." fi if [ "$c" -eq 24 -a "$d" -eq 47 ] then ^ ^ echo "$c equals 24 and $d equals 47." fi param2=${param1:-$DEFAULTVAL} # ^ -- The double-dash prefixes long (verbatim) options to commands. sort --ignore-leading-blanks Used with a Bash builtin, it means the end of options to that particular command. This provides a handy means of removing files whose names begin with a dash. bash$ ls -l -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Nov 25 12:29 -badname bash$ rm -- -badname bash$ ls -l total 0 The double-dash is also used in conjunction with set. set -- $variable (as in ) - - special character - redirection from/to stdin/stdout redirection from/to <filename>stdin</filename> or <filename>stdout</filename> [dash] bash$ cat - abc abc ... Ctl-D As expected, cat - echoes stdin, in this case keyboarded user input, to stdout. But, does I/O redirection using - have real-world applications? (cd /source/directory && tar cf - . ) | (cd /dest/directory && tar xpvf -) # Move entire file tree from one directory to another # [courtesy Alan Cox <a.cox@swansea.ac.uk>, with a minor change] # 1) cd /source/directory # Source directory, where the files to be moved are. # 2) && # "And-list": if the 'cd' operation successful, # then execute the next command. # 3) tar cf - . # The 'c' option 'tar' archiving command creates a new archive, # the 'f' (file) option, followed by '-' designates the target file # as stdout, and do it in current directory tree ('.'). # 4) | # Piped to ... # 5) ( ... ) # a subshell # 6) cd /dest/directory # Change to the destination directory. # 7) && # "And-list", as above # 8) tar xpvf - # Unarchive ('x'), preserve ownership and file permissions ('p'), # and send verbose messages to stdout ('v'), # reading data from stdin ('f' followed by '-'). # # Note that 'x' is a command, and 'p', 'v', 'f' are options. # # Whew! # More elegant than, but equivalent to: # cd source/directory # tar cf - . | (cd ../dest/directory; tar xpvf -) # # Also having same effect: # cp -a /source/directory/* /dest/directory # Or: # cp -a /source/directory/* /source/directory/.[^.]* /dest/directory # If there are hidden files in /source/directory. bunzip2 -c linux-2.6.16.tar.bz2 | tar xvf - # --uncompress tar file-- | --then pass it to "tar"-- # If "tar" has not been patched to handle "bunzip2", #+ this needs to be done in two discrete steps, using a pipe. # The purpose of the exercise is to unarchive "bzipped" kernel source. Note that in this context the - is not itself a Bash operator, but rather an option recognized by certain UNIX utilities that write to stdout, such as tar, cat, etc. bash$ echo "whatever" | cat - whatever Where a filename is expected, - redirects output to stdout (sometimes seen with tar cf), or accepts input from stdin, rather than from a file. This is a method of using a file-oriented utility as a filter in a pipe. bash$ file Usage: file [-bciknvzL] [-f namefile] [-m magicfiles] file... By itself on the command line, file fails with an error message. Add a - for a more useful result. This causes the shell to await user input. bash$ file - abc standard input: ASCII text bash$ file - #!/bin/bash standard input: Bourne-Again shell script text executable Now the command accepts input from stdin and analyzes it. The - can be used to pipe stdout to other commands. This permits such stunts as prepending lines to a file. Using diff to compare a file with a section of another: grep Linux file1 | diff file2 - Finally, a real-world example using - with tar. Backup of all files changed in last day &ex58; Filenames beginning with - may cause problems when coupled with the - redirection operator. A script should check for this and add an appropriate prefix to such filenames, for example ./-FILENAME, $PWD/-FILENAME, or $PATHNAME/-FILENAME. If the value of a variable begins with a -, this may likewise create problems. var="-n" echo $var # Has the effect of "echo -n", and outputs nothing. - previous working directory A cd - command changes to the previous working directory. This uses the $OLDPWD environmental variable. Do not confuse the - used in this sense with the - redirection operator just discussed. The interpretation of the - depends on the context in which it appears. - Minus Minus sign in an arithmetic operation. = Equals Assignment operator a=28 echo $a # 28 In a different context, the = is a string comparison operator. + Plus Addition arithmetic operator. In a different context, the + is a Regular Expression operator. + Option Option flag for a command or filter. Certain commands and builtins use the to enable certain options and the to disable them. In parameter substitution, the prefixes an alternate value that a variable expands to. % <link linkend="moduloref">modulo</link> Modulo (remainder of a division) arithmetic operation. let "z = 5 % 3" echo $z # 2 In a different context, the % is a pattern matching operator. ~ home directory [tilde] This corresponds to the $HOME internal variable. ~bozo is bozo's home directory, and ls ~bozo lists the contents of it. ~/ is the current user's home directory, and ls ~/ lists the contents of it. bash$ echo ~bozo /home/bozo bash$ echo ~ /home/bozo bash$ echo ~/ /home/bozo/ bash$ echo ~: /home/bozo: bash$ echo ~nonexistent-user ~nonexistent-user ~+ current working directory This corresponds to the $PWD internal variable. ~- previous working directory This corresponds to the $OLDPWD internal variable. =~ <link linkend="regexmatchref">regular expression match</link> This operator was introduced with version 3 of Bash. ^ ^ special character ^ regular expression beginning of line beginning-of-line In a regular expression, a ^ addresses the beginning of a line of text. Control Characters change the behavior of the terminal or text display. A control character is a CONTROL + key combination (pressed simultaneously). A control character may also be written in octal or hexadecimal notation, following an escape. Control characters are not normally useful inside a script. Ctl-A Moves cursor to beginning of line of text (on the command-line). Ctl-B Backspace (nondestructive). Ctl-C Break. Terminate a foreground job. Ctl-D Log out from a shell (similar to exit). EOF (end-of-file). This also terminates input from stdin. When typing text on the console or in an xterm window, Ctl-D erases the character under the cursor. When there are no characters present, Ctl-D logs out of the session, as expected. In an xterm window, this has the effect of closing the window. Ctl-E Moves cursor to end of line of text (on the command-line). Ctl-F Moves cursor forward one character position (on the command-line). Ctl-G BEL. On some old-time teletype terminals, this would actually ring a bell. In an xterm it might beep. Ctl-H Rubout (destructive backspace). Erases characters the cursor backs over while backspacing. #!/bin/bash # Embedding Ctl-H in a string. a="^H^H" # Two Ctl-H's -- backspaces # ctl-V ctl-H, using vi/vim echo "abcdef" # abcdef echo echo -n "abcdef$a " # abcd f # Space at end ^ ^ Backspaces twice. echo echo -n "abcdef$a" # abcdef # No space at end ^ Doesn't backspace (why?). # Results may not be quite as expected. echo; echo # Constantin Hagemeier suggests trying: # a=$'\010\010' # a=$'\b\b' # a=$'\x08\x08' # But, this does not change the results. Ctl-I Horizontal tab. Ctl-J Newline (line feed). In a script, may also be expressed in octal notation -- '\012' or in hexadecimal -- '\x0a'. Ctl-K Vertical tab. When typing text on the console or in an xterm window, Ctl-K erases from the character under the cursor to end of line. Within a script, Ctl-K may behave differently, as in Lee Lee Maschmeyer's example, below. Ctl-L Formfeed (clear the terminal screen). In a terminal, this has the same effect as the clear command. When sent to a printer, a Ctl-L causes an advance to end of the paper sheet. Ctl-M Carriage return. #!/bin/bash # Thank you, Lee Maschmeyer, for this example. read -n 1 -s -p \ $'Control-M leaves cursor at beginning of this line. Press Enter. \x0d' # Of course, '0d' is the hex equivalent of Control-M. echo >&2 # The '-s' makes anything typed silent, #+ so it is necessary to go to new line explicitly. read -n 1 -s -p $'Control-J leaves cursor on next line. \x0a' # '0a' is the hex equivalent of Control-J, linefeed. echo >&2 ### read -n 1 -s -p $'And Control-K\x0bgoes straight down.' echo >&2 # Control-K is vertical tab. # A better example of the effect of a vertical tab is: var=$'\x0aThis is the bottom line\x0bThis is the top line\x0a' echo "$var" # This works the same way as the above example. However: echo "$var" | col # This causes the right end of the line to be higher than the left end. # It also explains why we started and ended with a line feed -- #+ to avoid a garbled screen. # As Lee Maschmeyer explains: # -------------------------- # In the [first vertical tab example] . . . the vertical tab #+ makes the printing go straight down without a carriage return. # This is true only on devices, such as the Linux console, #+ that can't go "backward." # The real purpose of VT is to go straight UP, not down. # It can be used to print superscripts on a printer. # The col utility can be used to emulate the proper behavior of VT. exit 0 Ctl-N Erases a line of text recalled from history buffer Bash stores a list of commands previously issued from the command-line in a buffer, or memory space, for recall with the builtin history commands. (on the command-line). Ctl-O Issues a newline (on the command-line). Ctl-P Recalls last command from history buffer (on the command-line). Ctl-Q Resume (XON). This resumes stdin in a terminal. Ctl-R Backwards search for text in history buffer (on the command-line). Ctl-S Suspend (XOFF). This freezes stdin in a terminal. (Use Ctl-Q to restore input.) Ctl-T Reverses the position of the character the cursor is on with the previous character (on the command-line). Ctl-U Erase a line of input, from the cursor backward to beginning of line. In some settings, Ctl-U erases the entire line of input, regardless of cursor position. Ctl-V When inputting text, Ctl-V permits inserting control characters. For example, the following two are equivalent: echo -e '\x0a' echo <Ctl-V><Ctl-J> Ctl-V is primarily useful from within a text editor. Ctl-W When typing text on the console or in an xterm window, Ctl-W erases from the character under the cursor backwards to the first instance of whitespace. In some settings, Ctl-W erases backwards to first non-alphanumeric character. Ctl-X In certain word processing programs, Cuts highlighted text and copies to clipboard. Ctl-Y Pastes back text previously erased (with Ctl-K or Ctl-U). Ctl-Z Pauses a foreground job. Substitute operation in certain word processing applications. EOF (end-of-file) character in the MSDOS filesystem. Whitespace functions as a separator, separating commands or variables. Whitespace consists of either spaces, tabs, blank lines, or any combination thereof. A linefeed (newline) is also a whitespace character. This explains why a blank line, consisting only of a linefeed, is considered whitespace. In some contexts, such as variable assignment, whitespace is not permitted, and results in a syntax error. Blank lines have no effect on the action of a script, and are therefore useful for visually separating functional sections. $IFS, the special variable separating fields of input to certain commands, defaults to whitespace. To preserve whitespace within a string or in a variable, use quoting. UNIX filters can target and operate on whitespace using the POSIX character class [:space:]. Introduction to Variables and Parameters Variables are how programming and scripting languages represent data. A variable is nothing more than a label, a name assigned to a location or set of locations holding an item of data, in computer memory. Variables appear in arithmetic operations and manipulation of quantities, and in string parsing. Variable Substitution The name of a variable is a placeholder for its value, the data it holds. Referencing (retrieving) its value is called variable substitution. $ $ variable $ variable substitution Let us carefully distinguish between the name of a variable and its value. If variable1 is the name of a variable, then $variable1 is a reference to its value, the data item it contains. Technically, the name of a variable is called an lvalue, meaning that it appears on the left side of an assignment statment, as in VARIABLE=23. A variable's value is an rvalue, meaning that it appears on the right side of an assignment statement, as in VAR2=$VARIABLE. A variable's name is, in fact, a reference, a pointer to the memory location(s) where the actual data associated with that variable is kept. bash$ variable1=23 bash$ echo variable1 variable1 bash$ echo $variable1 23 The only time a variable appears naked -- without the $ prefix -- is when declared or assigned, when unset, when exported, or in the special case of a variable representing a signal (see ). Assignment may be with an = (as in var1=27), in a read statement, and at the head of a loop (for var2 in 1 2 3). Enclosing a referenced value in double quotes (" ... ") does not interfere with variable substitution. This is called partial quoting, sometimes referred to as weak quoting. Using single quotes (' ... ') causes the variable name to be used literally, and no substitution will take place. This is full quoting, sometimes referred to as 'strong quoting.' See for a detailed discussion. Note that $variable is actually a simplified form of ${variable}. In contexts where the $variable syntax causes an error, the longer form may work (see , below). Variable assignment and substitution &ex9; An uninitialized variable has a null value -- no assigned value at all (not zero!). if [ -z "$unassigned" ] then echo "\$unassigned is NULL." fi # $unassigned is NULL. Using a variable before assigning a value to it may cause problems. It is nevertheless possible to perform arithmetic operations on an uninitialized variable. echo "$uninitialized" # (blank line) let "uninitialized += 5" # Add 5 to it. echo "$uninitialized" # 5 # Conclusion: # An uninitialized variable has no value, #+ however it acts as if it were 0 in an arithmetic operation. # This is undocumented (and probably non-portable) behavior, #+ and should not be used in a script. See also . Variable Assignment = = variable assignment the assignment operator (no space before and after) Do not confuse this with = and -eq, which test, rather than assign! Note that = can be either an assignment or a test operator, depending on context. Plain Variable Assignment &ex15; Variable Assignment, plain and fancy &ex16; Variable assignment using the $(...) mechanism (a newer method than backquotes). This is actually a form of command substitution. # From /etc/rc.d/rc.local R=$(cat /etc/redhat-release) arch=$(uname -m) Bash Variables Are Untyped Unlike many other programming languages, Bash does not segregate its variables by type. Essentially, Bash variables are character strings, but, depending on context, Bash permits arithmetic operations and comparisons on variables. The determining factor is whether the value of a variable contains only digits. Integer or string? &intorstring; Untyped variables are both a blessing and a curse. They permit more flexibility in scripting and make it easier to grind out lines of code (and give you enough rope to hang yourself!). However, they likewise permit subtle errors to creep in and encourage sloppy programming habits. To lighten the burden of keeping track of variable types in a script, Bash does permit declaring variables. Special Variable Types local variables variable local variables visible only within a code block or function (see also local variables in functions) environmental variables variable environmental variables that affect the behavior of the shell and user interface In a more general context, each process has an environment, that is, a group of variables that the process may reference. In this sense, the shell behaves like any other process. Every time a shell starts, it creates shell variables that correspond to its own environmental variables. Updating or adding new environmental variables causes the shell to update its environment, and all the shell's child processes (the commands it executes) inherit this environment. The space allotted to the environment is limited. Creating too many environmental variables or ones that use up excessive space may cause problems. bash$ eval "`seq 10000 | sed -e 's/.*/export var&=ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ/'`" bash$ du bash: /usr/bin/du: Argument list too long Note: this error has been fixed, as of kernel version 2.6.23. (Thank you, Stéphane Chazelas for the clarification, and for providing the above example.) If a script sets environmental variables, they need to be exported, that is, reported to the environment local to the script. This is the function of the export command. A script can export variables only to child processes, that is, only to commands or processes which that particular script initiates. A script invoked from the command line cannot export variables back to the command line environment. Child processes cannot export variables back to the parent processes that spawned them. Definition: A child process is a subprocess launched by another process, its parent. --- positional parameters parameter positional arguments passed to the script from the command line Note that functions also take positional parameters. : $0, $1, $2, $3 . . . $0 is the name of the script itself, $1 is the first argument, $2 the second, $3 the third, and so forth. The process calling the script sets the $0 parameter. By convention, this parameter is the name of the script. See the manpage (manual page) for execv. From the command line, however, $0 is the name of the shell. bash$ echo $0 bash tcsh% echo $0 tcsh After $9, the arguments must be enclosed in brackets, for example, ${10}, ${11}, ${12}. The special variables $* and $@ denote all the positional parameters. Positional Parameters &ex17; Bracket notation for positional parameters leads to a fairly simple way of referencing the last argument passed to a script on the command line. This also requires indirect referencing. args=$# # Number of args passed. lastarg=${!args} # Note: This is an *indirect reference* to $args ... # Or: lastarg=${!#} (Thanks, Chris Monson.) # This is an *indirect reference* to the $# variable. # Note that lastarg=${!$#} doesn't work. Some scripts can perform different operations, depending on which name they are invoked with. For this to work, the script needs to check $0, the name it was invoked by. There must also exist symbolic links to all the alternate names of the script. See . If a script expects a command line parameter but is invoked without one, this may cause a null variable assignment, generally an undesirable result. One way to prevent this is to append an extra character to both sides of the assignment statement using the expected positional parameter. variable1_=$1_ # Rather than variable1=$1 # This will prevent an error, even if positional parameter is absent. critical_argument01=$variable1_ # The extra character can be stripped off later, like so. variable1=${variable1_/_/} # Side effects only if $variable1_ begins with an underscore. # This uses one of the parameter substitution templates discussed later. # (Leaving out the replacement pattern results in a deletion.) # A more straightforward way of dealing with this is #+ to simply test whether expected positional parameters have been passed. if [ -z $1 ] then exit $E_MISSING_POS_PARAM fi # However, as Fabian Kreutz points out, #+ the above method may have unexpected side-effects. # A better method is parameter substitution: # ${1:-$DefaultVal} # See the "Parameter Substition" section #+ in the "Variables Revisited" chapter. --- <firstterm>wh</firstterm>, <firstterm> whois</firstterm> domain name lookup &ex18; --- shift command shift The shift command reassigns the positional parameters, in effect shifting them to the left one notch. $1 <--- $2, $2 <--- $3, $3 <--- $4, etc. The old $1 disappears, but $0 (the script name) does not change. If you use a large number of positional parameters to a script, shift lets you access those past 10, although {bracket} notation also permits this. Using <firstterm>shift</firstterm> &ex19; The shift command can take a numerical parameter indicating how many positions to shift. #!/bin/bash # shift-past.sh shift 3 # Shift 3 positions. # n=3; shift $n # Has the same effect. echo "$1" exit 0 # ======================== # $ sh shift-past.sh 1 2 3 4 5 4 # However, as Eleni Fragkiadaki, points out, #+ attempting a 'shift' past the number of #+ positional parameters ($#) returns an exit status of 1, #+ and the positional parameters themselves do not change. # This means possibly getting stuck in an endless loop. . . . # For example: # until [ -z "$1" ] # do # echo -n "$1 " # shift 20 # If less than 20 pos params, # done #+ then loop never ends! # # When in doubt, add a sanity check. . . . # shift 20 || break # ^^^^^^^^ The shift command works in a similar fashion on parameters passed to a function. See . Quoting " special character " ' special character ' quote \ special character \ escape Quoting means just that, bracketing a string in quotes. This has the effect of protecting special characters in the string from reinterpretation or expansion by the shell or shell script. (A character is special if it has an interpretation other than its literal meaning. For example, the asterisk * represents a wild card character in globbing and Regular Expressions). bash$ ls -l [Vv]* -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 324 Apr 2 15:05 VIEWDATA.BAT -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 507 May 4 14:25 vartrace.sh -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 539 Apr 14 17:11 viewdata.sh bash$ ls -l '[Vv]*' ls: [Vv]*: No such file or directory In everyday speech or writing, when we quote a phrase, we set it apart and give it special meaning. In a Bash script, when we quote a string, we set it apart and protect its literal meaning. Certain programs and utilities reinterpret or expand special characters in a quoted string. An important use of quoting is protecting a command-line parameter from the shell, but still letting the calling program expand it. bash$ grep '[Ff]irst' *.txt file1.txt:This is the first line of file1.txt. file2.txt:This is the First line of file2.txt. Note that the unquoted grep [Ff]irst *.txt works under the Bash shell. Unless there is a file named first in the current working directory. Yet another reason to quote. (Thank you, Harald Koenig, for pointing this out. Quoting can also suppress echo's appetite for newlines. bash$ echo $(ls -l) total 8 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bo bo 13 Aug 21 12:57 t.sh -rw-rw-r-- 1 bo bo 78 Aug 21 12:57 u.sh bash$ echo "$(ls -l)" total 8 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bo bo 13 Aug 21 12:57 t.sh -rw-rw-r-- 1 bo bo 78 Aug 21 12:57 u.sh Quoting Variables When referencing a variable, it is generally advisable to enclose its name in double quotes. This prevents reinterpretation of all special characters within the quoted string -- the variable name It also has side-effects on the value of the variable (see below) -- except $, ` (backquote), and \ (escape). Encapsulating ! within double quotes gives an error when used from the command line. This is interpreted as a history command. Within a script, though, this problem does not occur, since the Bash history mechanism is disabled then. Of more concern is the apparently inconsistent behavior of \ within double quotes. bash$ echo hello\! hello! bash$ echo "hello\!" hello\! bash$ echo -e x\ty xty bash$ echo -e "x\ty" x y What happens is that double quotes normally escape the \ escape character, so that it echoes literally. However, the option to echo changes that. It causes the \t to be interpreted as a tab. (Thank you, Wayne Pollock, for pointing this out, and Geoff Lee for explaining it.) Keeping $ as a special character within double quotes permits referencing a quoted variable ("$variable"), that is, replacing the variable with its value (see , above). Use double quotes to prevent word splitting. Word splitting, in this context, means dividing a character string into a number of separate and discrete arguments. An argument enclosed in double quotes presents itself as a single word, even if it contains whitespace separators. List="one two three" for a in $List # Splits the variable in parts at whitespace. do echo "$a" done # one # two # three echo "---" for a in "$List" # Preserves whitespace in a single variable. do # ^ ^ echo "$a" done # one two three A more elaborate example: variable1="a variable containing five words" COMMAND This is $variable1 # Executes COMMAND with 7 arguments: # "This" "is" "a" "variable" "containing" "five" "words" COMMAND "This is $variable1" # Executes COMMAND with 1 argument: # "This is a variable containing five words" variable2="" # Empty. COMMAND $variable2 $variable2 $variable2 # Executes COMMAND with no arguments. COMMAND "$variable2" "$variable2" "$variable2" # Executes COMMAND with 3 empty arguments. COMMAND "$variable2 $variable2 $variable2" # Executes COMMAND with 1 argument (2 spaces). # Thanks, Stéphane Chazelas. Enclosing the arguments to an echo statement in double quotes is necessary only when word splitting or preservation of whitespace is an issue. Echoing Weird Variables &weirdvars; Single quotes (' ') operate similarly to double quotes, but do not permit referencing variables, since the special meaning of $ is turned off. Within single quotes, every special character except ' gets interpreted literally. Consider single quotes (full quoting) to be a stricter method of quoting than double quotes (partial quoting). Since even the escape character (\) gets a literal interpretation within single quotes, trying to enclose a single quote within single quotes will not yield the expected result. echo "Why can't I write 's between single quotes" echo # The roundabout method. echo 'Why can'\''t I write '"'"'s between single quotes' # |-------| |----------| |-----------------------| # Three single-quoted strings, with escaped and quoted single quotes between. # This example courtesy of Stéphane Chazelas. Escaping Escaping is a method of quoting single characters. The escape (\) preceding a character tells the shell to interpret that character literally. With certain commands and utilities, such as echo and sed, escaping a character may have the opposite effect - it can toggle on a special meaning for that character. <anchor id="spm">Special meanings of certain escaped characters used with echo and sed \n \n escaped character \n newline means newline \r \r escaped character \r carriage return means return \t \t escaped character \t tabulation means tab \v \v escaped character \v vertical tabulation means vertical tab \b \b escaped character \b backspace means backspace \a \a escaped character \a alert beep flash means alert (beep or flash) \0xx \0xx escaped character \0nn octal ASCII translates to the octal ASCII equivalent of 0nn, where nn is a string of digits Escaped Characters &escaped; See for another example of the $' ... ' string-expansion construct. \" \" escaped character \" quote gives the quote its literal meaning echo "Hello" # Hello echo "\"Hello\" ... he said." # "Hello" ... he said. \$ \$ escaped character \$ dollar gives the dollar sign its literal meaning (variable name following \$ will not be referenced) echo "\$variable01" # $variable01 echo "The book cost \$7.98." # The book cost $7.98. \\ \\ escaped character \\ double backslash gives the backslash its literal meaning echo "\\" # Results in \ # Whereas . . . echo "\" # Invokes secondary prompt from the command line. # In a script, gives an error message. # However . . . echo '\' # Results in \ The behavior of \ depends on whether it is escaped, strong-quoted, weak-quoted, or appearing within command substitution or a here document. # Simple escaping and quoting echo \z # z echo \\z # \z echo '\z' # \z echo '\\z' # \\z echo "\z" # \z echo "\\z" # \z # Command substitution echo `echo \z` # z echo `echo \\z` # z echo `echo \\\z` # \z echo `echo \\\\z` # \z echo `echo \\\\\\z` # \z echo `echo \\\\\\\z` # \\z echo `echo "\z"` # \z echo `echo "\\z"` # \z # Here document cat <<EOF \z EOF # \z cat <<EOF \\z EOF # \z # These examples supplied by Stéphane Chazelas. Elements of a string assigned to a variable may be escaped, but the escape character alone may not be assigned to a variable. variable=\ echo "$variable" # Will not work - gives an error message: # test.sh: : command not found # A "naked" escape cannot safely be assigned to a variable. # # What actually happens here is that the "\" escapes the newline and #+ the effect is variable=echo "$variable" #+ invalid variable assignment variable=\ 23skidoo echo "$variable" # 23skidoo # This works, since the second line #+ is a valid variable assignment. variable=\ # \^ escape followed by space echo "$variable" # space variable=\\ echo "$variable" # \ variable=\\\ echo "$variable" # Will not work - gives an error message: # test.sh: \: command not found # # First escape escapes second one, but the third one is left "naked", #+ with same result as first instance, above. variable=\\\\ echo "$variable" # \\ # Second and fourth escapes escaped. # This is o.k. Escaping a space can prevent word splitting in a command's argument list. file_list="/bin/cat /bin/gzip /bin/more /usr/bin/less /usr/bin/emacs-20.7" # List of files as argument(s) to a command. # Add two files to the list, and list all. ls -l /usr/X11R6/bin/xsetroot /sbin/dump $file_list echo "-------------------------------------------------------------------------" # What happens if we escape a couple of spaces? ls -l /usr/X11R6/bin/xsetroot\ /sbin/dump\ $file_list # Error: the first three files concatenated into a single argument to 'ls -l' # because the two escaped spaces prevent argument (word) splitting. The escape also provides a means of writing a multi-line command. Normally, each separate line constitutes a different command, but an escape at the end of a line escapes the newline character, and the command sequence continues on to the next line. (cd /source/directory && tar cf - . ) | \ (cd /dest/directory && tar xpvf -) # Repeating Alan Cox's directory tree copy command, # but split into two lines for increased legibility. # As an alternative: tar cf - -C /source/directory . | tar xpvf - -C /dest/directory # See note below. # (Thanks, Stéphane Chazelas.) If a script line ends with a |, a pipe character, then a \, an escape, is not strictly necessary. It is, however, good programming practice to always escape the end of a line of code that continues to the following line. echo "foo bar" #foo #bar echo echo 'foo bar' # No difference yet. #foo #bar echo echo foo\ bar # Newline escaped. #foobar echo echo "foo\ bar" # Same here, as \ still interpreted as escape within weak quotes. #foobar echo echo 'foo\ bar' # Escape character \ taken literally because of strong quoting. #foo\ #bar # Examples suggested by Stéphane Chazelas. Exit and Exit Status ... there are dark corners in the Bourne shell, and people use all of them. --Chet Ramey The exit command exit exit command terminates a script, just as in a C program. It can also return a value, which is available to the script's parent process. Every command returns an exit status exit status (sometimes referred to as a return status return status or exit code). A successful command returns a 0, while an unsuccessful one returns a non-zero value that usually may be interpreted as an error code. Well-behaved UNIX commands, programs, and utilities return a 0 exit code upon successful completion, though there are some exceptions. Likewise, functions within a script and the script itself return an exit status. The last command executed in the function or script determines the exit status. Within a script, an exit nnn command may be used to deliver an nnn exit status to the shell (nnn must be a decimal number in the 0 - 255 range). When a script ends with an exit that has no parameter, the exit status of the script is the exit status of the last command executed in the script (previous to the exit). #!/bin/bash COMMAND_1 . . . # Will exit with status of last command. COMMAND_LAST exit The equivalent of a bare exit is exit $? or even just omitting the exit. #!/bin/bash COMMAND_1 . . . # Will exit with status of last command. COMMAND_LAST exit $? #!/bin/bash COMMAND1 . . . # Will exit with status of last command. COMMAND_LAST $? variable $? $? reads the exit status of the last command executed. After a function returns, $? gives the exit status of the last command executed in the function. This is Bash's way of giving functions a return value. After a script terminates, a $? from the command line gives the exit status of the script, that is, the last command executed in the script, which is, by convention, 0 on success or an integer in the range 1 - 255 on error. exit / exit status &ex5; $? is especially useful for testing the result of a command in a script (see and ). The !, the logical not qualifier, reverses the outcome of a test or command, and this affects its exit status. Negating a condition using <token>!</token> true # The "true" builtin. echo "exit status of \"true\" = $?" # 0 ! true echo "exit status of \"! true\" = $?" # 1 # Note that the "!" needs a space between it and the command. # !true leads to a "command not found" error # # The '!' operator prefixing a command invokes the Bash history mechanism. true !true # No error this time, but no negation either. # It just repeats the previous command (true). # Thanks, Stéphane Chazelas and Kristopher Newsome. Certain exit status codes have reserved meanings and should not be user-specified in a script. Tests if test if then else else if elif Every reasonably complete programming language can test for a condition, then act according to the result of the test. Bash has the test command, various bracket and parenthesis operators, and the if/then construct. Test Constructs An if/then construct tests whether the exit status of a list of commands is 0 (since 0 means success by UNIX convention), and if so, executes one or more commands. There exists a dedicated command called [ (left bracket special character). It is a synonym for test, and a builtin for efficiency reasons. This command considers its arguments as comparison expressions or file tests and returns an exit status corresponding to the result of the comparison (0 for true, 1 for false). With version 2.02, Bash introduced the [[ ... ]] extended test command, which performs comparisons in a manner more familiar to programmers from other languages. Note that [[ is a keyword, not a command. Bash sees [[ $a -lt $b ]] as a single element, which returns an exit status. The (( ... )) and let ... constructs also return an exit status, according to whether the arithmetic expressions they evaluate expand to a non-zero value. These arithmetic-expansion constructs may therefore be used to perform arithmetic comparisons. (( 0 && 1 )) # Logical AND echo $? # 1 *** # And so ... let "num = (( 0 && 1 ))" echo $num # 0 # But ... let "num = (( 0 && 1 ))" echo $? # 1 *** (( 200 || 11 )) # Logical OR echo $? # 0 *** # ... let "num = (( 200 || 11 ))" echo $num # 1 let "num = (( 200 || 11 ))" echo $? # 0 *** (( 200 | 11 )) # Bitwise OR echo $? # 0 *** # ... let "num = (( 200 | 11 ))" echo $num # 203 let "num = (( 200 | 11 ))" echo $? # 0 *** # The "let" construct returns the same exit status #+ as the double-parentheses arithmetic expansion. An if can test any command, not just conditions enclosed within brackets. if cmp a b &> /dev/null # Suppress output. then echo "Files a and b are identical." else echo "Files a and b differ." fi # The very useful "if-grep" construct: # ----------------------------------- if grep -q Bash file then echo "File contains at least one occurrence of Bash." fi word=Linux letter_sequence=inu if echo "$word" | grep -q "$letter_sequence" # The "-q" option to grep suppresses output. then echo "$letter_sequence found in $word" else echo "$letter_sequence not found in $word" fi if COMMAND_WHOSE_EXIT_STATUS_IS_0_UNLESS_ERROR_OCCURRED then echo "Command succeeded." else echo "Command failed." fi These last two examples courtesy of Stéphane Chazelas. What is truth? &ex10; Exercise Explain the behavior of , above. if [ condition-true ] then command 1 command 2 ... else # Or else ... # Adds default code block executing if original condition tests false. command 3 command 4 ... fi When if and then are on same line in a condition test, a semicolon must terminate the if statement. Both if and then are keywords. Keywords (or commands) begin statements, and before a new statement on the same line begins, the old one must terminate. if [ -x "$filename" ]; then <anchor id="elifref1">Else if and elif elif elif is a contraction for else if. The effect is to nest an inner if/then construct within an outer one. if [ condition1 ] then command1 command2 command3 elif [ condition2 ] # Same as else if then command4 command5 else default-command fi test test test [ special character [ ] special character ] The if test condition-true construct is the exact equivalent of if [ condition-true ]. As it happens, the left bracket, [ , is a token which invokes the test command. The closing right bracket, ] , in an if/test should not therefore be strictly necessary, however newer versions of Bash require it. The test command is a Bash builtin which tests file types and compares strings. Therefore, in a Bash script, test does not call the external /usr/bin/test binary, which is part of the sh-utils package. Likewise, [ does not call /usr/bin/[, which is linked to /usr/bin/test. bash$ type test test is a shell builtin bash$ type '[' [ is a shell builtin bash$ type '[[' [[ is a shell keyword bash$ type ']]' ]] is a shell keyword bash$ type ']' bash: type: ]: not found If, for some reason, you wish to use /usr/bin/test in a Bash script, then specify it by full pathname. Equivalence of <firstterm>test</firstterm>, <filename>/usr/bin/test</filename>, <token>[ ]</token>, and <filename>/usr/bin/[</filename> &ex11; test test test [[ special character [[ ]] special character ]] The [[ ]] construct is the more versatile Bash version of [ ]. This is the extended test command, adopted from ksh88. * * * No filename expansion or word splitting takes place between [[ and ]], but there is parameter expansion and command substitution. file=/etc/passwd if [[ -e $file ]] then echo "Password file exists." fi Using the [[ ... ]] test construct, rather than [ ... ] can prevent many logic errors in scripts. For example, the &&, ||, <, and > operators work within a [[ ]] test, despite giving an error within a [ ] construct. Arithmetic evaluation of octal / hexadecimal constants takes place automatically within a [[ ... ]] construct. # [[ Octal and hexadecimal evaluation ]] # Thank you, Moritz Gronbach, for pointing this out. decimal=15 octal=017 # = 15 (decimal) hex=0x0f # = 15 (decimal) if [ "$decimal" -eq "$octal" ] then echo "$decimal equals $octal" else echo "$decimal is not equal to $octal" # 15 is not equal to 017 fi # Doesn't evaluate within [ single brackets ]! if [[ "$decimal" -eq "$octal" ]] then echo "$decimal equals $octal" # 15 equals 017 else echo "$decimal is not equal to $octal" fi # Evaluates within [[ double brackets ]]! if [[ "$decimal" -eq "$hex" ]] then echo "$decimal equals $hex" # 15 equals 0x0f else echo "$decimal is not equal to $hex" fi # [[ $hexadecimal ]] also evaluates! Following an if, neither the test command nor the test brackets ( [ ] or [[ ]] ) are strictly necessary. dir=/home/bozo if cd "$dir" 2>/dev/null; then # "2>/dev/null" hides error message. echo "Now in $dir." else echo "Can't change to $dir." fi The "if COMMAND" construct returns the exit status of COMMAND. Similarly, a condition within test brackets may stand alone without an if, when used in combination with a list construct. var1=20 var2=22 [ "$var1" -ne "$var2" ] && echo "$var1 is not equal to $var2" home=/home/bozo [ -d "$home" ] || echo "$home directory does not exist." test test test (( special character )) (( special character )) The (( )) construct expands and evaluates an arithmetic expression. If the expression evaluates as zero, it returns an exit status of 1, or false. A non-zero expression returns an exit status of 0, or true. This is in marked contrast to using the test and [ ] constructs previously discussed. Arithmetic Tests using <token>(( ))</token> &arithtests; File test operators <anchor id="rtif">Returns true if... -e file exists -a file exists This is identical in effect to -e. It has been deprecated, Per the 1913 edition of Webster's Dictionary: Deprecate ... To pray against, as an evil; to seek to avert by prayer; to desire the removal of; to seek deliverance from; to express deep regret for; to disapprove of strongly. and its use is discouraged. -f file is a regular file (not a directory or device file) -s file is not zero size -d file is a directory -b file is a block device device="/dev/sda2" # / (root directory) if [ -b "$device" ] then echo "$device is a block device." fi # /dev/sda2 is a block device. -c file is a character device -p file is a pipe -h file is a symbolic link -L file is a symbolic link -S file is a socket -t file (descriptor) is associated with a terminal device This test option may be used to check whether the stdin ([ -t 0 ]) or stdout ([ -t 1 ]) in a given script is a terminal. -r file has read permission (for the user running the test) -w file has write permission (for the user running the test) -x file has execute permission (for the user running the test) -g set-group-id (sgid) flag set on file or directory If a directory has the sgid flag set, then a file created within that directory belongs to the group that owns the directory, not necessarily to the group of the user who created the file. This may be useful for a directory shared by a workgroup. -u set-user-id (suid) flag set on file A binary owned by root with set-user-id flag set runs with root privileges, even when an ordinary user invokes it. Be aware that suid binaries may open security holes. The suid flag has no effect on shell scripts. This is useful for executables (such as pppd and cdrecord) that need to access system hardware. Lacking the suid flag, these binaries could not be invoked by a non-root user. -rwsr-xr-t 1 root 178236 Oct 2 2000 /usr/sbin/pppd A file with the suid flag set shows an s in its permissions. -k sticky bit set Commonly known as the sticky bit, the save-text-mode flag is a special type of file permission. If a file has this flag set, that file will be kept in cache memory, for quicker access. On modern UNIX systems, the sticky bit is no longer used for files, only on directories. If set on a directory, it restricts write permission. Setting the sticky bit adds a t to the permissions on the file or directory listing. drwxrwxrwt 7 root 1024 May 19 21:26 tmp/ If a user does not own a directory that has the sticky bit set, but has write permission in that directory, she can only delete those files that she owns in it. This keeps users from inadvertently overwriting or deleting each other's files in a publicly accessible directory, such as /tmp. (The owner of the directory or root can, of course, delete or rename files there.) -O you are owner of file -G group-id of file same as yours -N file modified since it was last read f1 -nt f2 file f1 is newer than f2 f1 -ot f2 file f1 is older than f2 f1 -ef f2 files f1 and f2 are hard links to the same file ! not -- reverses the sense of the tests above (returns true if condition absent). Testing for broken links &brokenlink; , , , , and also illustrate uses of the file test operators. Other Comparison Operators A binary comparison operator compares two variables or quantities. Note that integer and string comparison use a different set of operators. <anchor id="icomparison1">integer comparison -eq is equal to if [ "$a" -eq "$b" ] -ne is not equal to if [ "$a" -ne "$b" ] -gt is greater than if [ "$a" -gt "$b" ] -ge is greater than or equal to if [ "$a" -ge "$b" ] -lt is less than if [ "$a" -lt "$b" ] -le is less than or equal to if [ "$a" -le "$b" ] < is less than (within double parentheses) (("$a" < "$b")) <= is less than or equal to (within double parentheses) (("$a" <= "$b")) > is greater than (within double parentheses) (("$a" > "$b")) >= is greater than or equal to (within double parentheses) (("$a" >= "$b")) <anchor id="scomparison1">string comparison = is equal to if [ "$a" = "$b" ] == is equal to if [ "$a" == "$b" ] This is a synonym for =. The == comparison operator behaves differently within a double-brackets test than within single brackets. [[ $a == z* ]] # True if $a starts with an "z" (regex pattern matching). [[ $a == "z*" ]] # True if $a is equal to z* (literal matching). [ $a == z* ] # File globbing and word splitting take place. [ "$a" == "z*" ] # True if $a is equal to z* (literal matching). # Thanks, Stéphane Chazelas != is not equal to if [ "$a" != "$b" ] This operator uses pattern matching within a [[ ... ]] construct. < is less than, in ASCII alphabetical order if [[ "$a" < "$b" ]] if [ "$a" \< "$b" ] Note that the < needs to be escaped within a [ ] construct. > is greater than, in ASCII alphabetical order if [[ "$a" > "$b" ]] if [ "$a" \> "$b" ] Note that the > needs to be escaped within a [ ] construct. See for an application of this comparison operator. -z string is null, that is, has zero length String='' # Zero-length ("null") string variable. if [ -z "$String" ] then echo "\$String is null." else echo "\$String is NOT null." fi # $String is null. -n string is not null. The -n test requires that the string be quoted within the test brackets. Using an unquoted string with ! -z, or even just the unquoted string alone within test brackets (see ) normally works, however, this is an unsafe practice. Always quote a tested string. As S.C. points out, in a compound test, even quoting the string variable might not suffice. [ -n "$string" -o "$a" = "$b" ] may cause an error with some versions of Bash if $string is empty. The safe way is to append an extra character to possibly empty variables, [ "x$string" != x -o "x$a" = "x$b" ] (the x's cancel out). Arithmetic and string comparisons &ex13; Testing whether a string is <firstterm>null</firstterm> &strtest; <firstterm>zmore</firstterm> &ex14; <anchor id="ccomparison1">compound comparison -a logical and exp1 -a exp2 returns true if both exp1 and exp2 are true. -o logical or exp1 -o exp2 returns true if either exp1 or exp2 is true. These are similar to the Bash comparison operators && and ||, used within double brackets. [[ condition1 && condition2 ]] The -o and -a operators work with the test command or occur within single test brackets. if [ "$exp1" -a "$exp2" ] Refer to , , and to see compound comparison operators in action. Nested <replaceable>if/then</replaceable> Condition Tests Condition tests using the if/then construct may be nested. The net result is equivalent to using the && compound comparison operator. if [ condition1 ] then if [ condition2 ] then do-something # But only if both "condition1" AND "condition2" valid. fi fi demonstrates a nested if/then condition test. Testing Your Knowledge of Tests The systemwide xinitrc file can be used to launch the X server. This file contains quite a number of if/then tests. The following is excerpted from an ancient version of xinitrc (Red Hat 7.1, or thereabouts). if [ -f $HOME/.Xclients ]; then exec $HOME/.Xclients elif [ -f /etc/X11/xinit/Xclients ]; then exec /etc/X11/xinit/Xclients else # failsafe settings. Although we should never get here # (we provide fallbacks in Xclients as well) it can't hurt. xclock -geometry 100x100-5+5 & xterm -geometry 80x50-50+150 & if [ -f /usr/bin/netscape -a -f /usr/share/doc/HTML/index.html ]; then netscape /usr/share/doc/HTML/index.html & fi fi Explain the test constructs in the above snippet, then examine an updated version of the file, /etc/X11/xinit/xinitrc, and analyze the if/then test constructs there. You may need to refer ahead to the discussions of grep, sed, and regular expressions. Operations and Related Topics Operators <anchor id="asnop1">assignment variable assignment Initializing or changing the value of a variable = operation = = All-purpose assignment operator, which works for both arithmetic and string assignments. var=27 category=minerals # No spaces allowed after the "=". Do not confuse the = assignment operator with the = test operator. # = as a test operator if [ "$string1" = "$string2" ] then command fi # if [ "X$string1" = "X$string2" ] is safer, #+ to prevent an error message should one of the variables be empty. # (The prepended "X" characters cancel out.) expr command expr let command let <anchor id="arops1">arithmetic operators + + operation + addition plus plus - - operation - subtraction minus minus * * operation * multiplication multiplication / / operation / division division ** ** operation ** exponentiation exponentiation # Bash, version 2.02, introduced the "**" exponentiation operator. let "z=5**3" # 5 * 5 * 5 echo "z = $z" # z = 125 % % operation % modulo modulo, or mod (returns the remainder of an integer division operation) bash$ expr 5 % 3 2 5/3 = 1, with remainder 2 This operator finds use in, among other things, generating numbers within a specific range (see and ) and formatting program output (see and ). It can even be used to generate prime numbers, (see ). Modulo turns up surprisingly often in various numerical recipes. Greatest common divisor &gcd; += += operation += plus-equal plus-equal (increment variable by a constant) let "var += 5" results in var being incremented by 5. -= -= operation -= minus-equal minus-equal (decrement variable by a constant) *= *= operation *= times-equal times-equal (multiply variable by a constant) let "var *= 4" results in var being multiplied by 4. /= /= operation /= slash-equal slash-equal (divide variable by a constant) %= %= operation %= mod-equal mod-equal (remainder of dividing variable by a constant) Arithmetic operators often occur in an expr or let expression. Using Arithmetic Operations &arithops; Integer variables in Bash are actually signed long (32-bit) integers, in the range of -2147483648 to 2147483647. An operation that takes a variable outside these limits will give an erroneous result. a=2147483646 echo "a = $a" # a = 2147483646 let "a+=1" # Increment "a". echo "a = $a" # a = 2147483647 let "a+=1" # increment "a" again, past the limit. echo "a = $a" # a = -2147483648 # ERROR (out of range) As of version 2.05b, Bash supports 64-bit integers. Bash does not understand floating point arithmetic. It treats numbers containing a decimal point as strings. a=1.5 let "b = $a + 1.3" # Error. # t2.sh: let: b = 1.5 + 1.3: syntax error in expression # (error token is ".5 + 1.3") echo "b = $b" # b=1 Use bc in scripts that that need floating point calculations or math library functions. bitwise operators The bitwise operators seldom make an appearance in shell scripts. Their chief use seems to be manipulating and testing values read from ports or sockets. Bit flipping is more relevant to compiled languages, such as C and C++, which provide direct access to system hardware. <anchor id="bitwsops1">bitwise operators << << operation << left shift bitwise left shift (multiplies by 2 for each shift position) <<= <<= operation <<= left-shift-equal left-shift-equal let "var <<= 2" results in var left-shifted 2 bits (multiplied by 4) >> >> operation >> right shift bitwise right shift (divides by 2 for each shift position) >>= >>= operation >>= right-shift-equal right-shift-equal (inverse of <<=) & & operation & AND bitwise bitwise AND &= &= operation &= and-equal bitwise AND-equal | | operation | OR bitwise bitwise OR |= |= operation |= OR-equal bitwise OR-equal ~ ~ operation ~ negate bitwise NOT ^ ^ operation ^ XOR bitwise XOR ^= ^= operation ^= XOR-equal bitwise XOR-equal <anchor id="logops1">logical (boolean) operators ! ! operator ! NOT NOT if [ ! -f $FILENAME ] then ... && && operator && AND logical AND if [ $condition1 ] && [ $condition2 ] # Same as: if [ $condition1 -a $condition2 ] # Returns true if both condition1 and condition2 hold true... if [[ $condition1 && $condition2 ]] # Also works. # Note that && operator not permitted within [ ... ] construct. && may also, depending on context, be used in an and list to concatenate commands. || || operator || OR logical OR if [ $condition1 ] || [ $condition2 ] # Same as: if [ $condition1 -o $condition2 ] # Returns true if either condition1 or condition2 holds true... if [[ $condition1 || $condition2 ]] # Also works. # Note that || operator not permitted within [ ... ] construct. Bash tests the exit status of each statement linked with a logical operator. Compound Condition Tests Using && and || &andor; The && and || operators also find use in an arithmetic context. bash$ echo $(( 1 && 2 )) $((3 && 0)) $((4 || 0)) $((0 || 0)) 1 0 1 0 <anchor id="miscop1">miscellaneous operators , , operation , linking Comma operator The comma operator chains together two or more arithmetic operations. All the operations are evaluated (with possible side effects Side effects are, of course, unintended -- and usually undesirable -- consequences. ), but only the last operation is returned. let "t1 = ((5 + 3, 7 - 1, 15 - 4))" echo "t1 = $t1" # t1 = 11 let "t2 = ((a = 9, 15 / 3))" # Set "a" and calculate "t2". echo "t2 = $t2 a = $a" # t2 = 5 a = 9 The comma operator finds use mainly in for loops. See . Numerical Constants A shell script interprets a number as decimal (base 10), unless that number has a special prefix or notation. A number preceded by a 0 is octal (base 8). A number preceded by 0x is hexadecimal (base 16). A number with an embedded # evaluates as BASE#NUMBER (with range and notational restrictions). Representation of numerical constants &numbers; Beyond the Basics Variables Revisited Used properly, variables can add power and flexibility to scripts. This requires learning their subtleties and nuances. Internal Variables Builtin variables variables affecting bash script behavior $BASH $BASH variable $BASH path to bash the path to the Bash binary itself bash$ echo $BASH /bin/bash $BASH_ENV $BASH_ENV variable $BASH_ENV an environmental variable pointing to a Bash startup file to be read when a script is invoked $BASH_SUBSHELL $BASH_SUBSHELL variable subshell a variable indicating the subshell level. This is a new addition to Bash, version 3. See for usage. $BASH_VERSINFO[n] $BASH_VERSINFO variable version information a 6-element array containing version information about the installed release of Bash. This is similar to $BASH_VERSION, below, but a bit more detailed. # Bash version info: for n in 0 1 2 3 4 5 do echo "BASH_VERSINFO[$n] = ${BASH_VERSINFO[$n]}" done # BASH_VERSINFO[0] = 3 # Major version no. # BASH_VERSINFO[1] = 00 # Minor version no. # BASH_VERSINFO[2] = 14 # Patch level. # BASH_VERSINFO[3] = 1 # Build version. # BASH_VERSINFO[4] = release # Release status. # BASH_VERSINFO[5] = i386-redhat-linux-gnu # Architecture # (same as $MACHTYPE). $BASH_VERSION $BASH_VERSION variable $BASH_VERSION the version of Bash installed on the system bash$ echo $BASH_VERSION 3.2.25(1)-release tcsh% echo $BASH_VERSION BASH_VERSION: Undefined variable. Checking $BASH_VERSION is a good method of determining which shell is running. $SHELL does not necessarily give the correct answer. $DIRSTACK $DIRSTACK variable $DIRSTACK directory stack directory stack the top value in the directory stack (affected by pushd and popd) This builtin variable corresponds to the dirs command, however dirs shows the entire contents of the directory stack. $EDITOR $EDITOR variable $EDITOR editor the default editor invoked by a script, usually vi or emacs. $EUID $EUID variable $EUID effective user ID effective user ID number Identification number of whatever identity the current user has assumed, perhaps by means of su. The $EUID is not necessarily the same as the $UID. $FUNCNAME $FUNCNAME variable function name name of the current function xyz23 () { echo "$FUNCNAME now executing." # xyz23 now executing. } xyz23 echo "FUNCNAME = $FUNCNAME" # FUNCNAME = # Null value outside a function. See also . $GLOBIGNORE $GLOBIGNORE variable globbing ignore A list of filename patterns to be excluded from matching in globbing. $GROUPS $GROUPS variable $GROUPS groups groups current user belongs to This is a listing (array) of the group id numbers for current user, as recorded in /etc/passwd and /etc/group. root# echo $GROUPS 0 root# echo ${GROUPS[1]} 1 root# echo ${GROUPS[5]} 6 $HOME $HOME variable $HOME home directory directory home home directory of the user, usually /home/username (see ) $HOSTNAME $HOSTNAME variable $HOSTNAME system name variable name The hostname command assigns the system host name at bootup in an init script. However, the gethostname() function sets the Bash internal variable $HOSTNAME. See also . $HOSTTYPE $HOSTTYPE variable $HOSTTYPE host type host type Like $MACHTYPE, identifies the system hardware. bash$ echo $HOSTTYPE i686 $IFS $IFS variable $IFS internal field separator internal field separator This variable determines how Bash recognizes fields, or word boundaries, when it interprets character strings. $IFS defaults to whitespace (space, tab, and newline), but may be changed, for example, to parse a comma-separated data file. Note that $* uses the first character held in $IFS. See . bash$ echo "$IFS" (With $IFS set to default, a blank line displays.) bash$ echo "$IFS" | cat -vte ^I$ $ (Show whitespace -- here space, ^I [horizontal tab], and newline -- and display "$" at end-of-line.) bash$ bash -c 'set w x y z; IFS=":-;"; echo "$*"' w:x:y:z (Read commands from string and assign any arguments to pos params.) $IFS does not handle whitespace the same as it does other characters. $IFS and whitespace &ifsh; (Many thanks, Stéphane Chazelas, for clarification and examples.) See also , , and for instructive examples of using $IFS. $IGNOREEOF $IGNOREEOF variable $IGNOREEOF Ignore EOF ignore EOF: how many end-of-files (control-D) the shell will ignore before logging out. $LC_COLLATE $LC_COLLATE variable $LC_COLLATE lowercase collate Often set in the .bashrc or /etc/profile files, this variable controls collation order in filename expansion and pattern matching. If mishandled, LC_COLLATE can cause unexpected results in filename globbing. As of version 2.05 of Bash, filename globbing no longer distinguishes between lowercase and uppercase letters in a character range between brackets. For example, ls [A-M]* would match both File1.txt and file1.txt. To revert to the customary behavior of bracket matching, set LC_COLLATE to by an export LC_COLLATE=C in /etc/profile and/or ~/.bashrc. $LC_CTYPE $LC_CTYPE variable $LC_CTYPE lowercase character type This internal variable controls character interpretation in globbing and pattern matching. $LINENO $LINENO variable $LINENO line number This variable is the line number of the shell script in which this variable appears. It has significance only within the script in which it appears, and is chiefly useful for debugging purposes. # *** BEGIN DEBUG BLOCK *** last_cmd_arg=$_ # Save it. echo "At line number $LINENO, variable \"v1\" = $v1" echo "Last command argument processed = $last_cmd_arg" # *** END DEBUG BLOCK *** $MACHTYPE $MACHTYPE variable $MACHTYPE machine type machine type Identifies the system hardware. bash$ echo $MACHTYPE i686 $OLDPWD $OLDPWD variable $OLDPWD previous working directory directory working old working directory (OLD-print-working-directory, previous directory you were in) $OSTYPE $OSTYPE variable $OSTYPE os type operating system type bash$ echo $OSTYPE linux $PATH $PATH variable $PATH path to binaries path to binaries, usually /usr/bin/, /usr/X11R6/bin/, /usr/local/bin, etc. When given a command, the shell automatically does a hash table search on the directories listed in the path for the executable. The path is stored in the environmental variable, $PATH, a list of directories, separated by colons. Normally, the system stores the $PATH definition in /etc/profile and/or ~/.bashrc (see ). bash$ echo $PATH /bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:/sbin:/usr/sbin PATH=${PATH}:/opt/bin appends the /opt/bin directory to the current path. In a script, it may be expedient to temporarily add a directory to the path in this way. When the script exits, this restores the original $PATH (a child process, such as a script, may not change the environment of the parent process, the shell). The current working directory, ./, is usually omitted from the $PATH as a security measure. $PIPESTATUS $PIPESTATUS variable pipe Array variable holding exit status(es) of last executed foreground pipe. bash$ echo $PIPESTATUS 0 bash$ ls -al | bogus_command bash: bogus_command: command not found bash$ echo ${PIPESTATUS[1]} 127 bash$ ls -al | bogus_command bash: bogus_command: command not found bash$ echo $? 127 The members of the $PIPESTATUS array hold the exit status of each respective command executed in a pipe. $PIPESTATUS[0] holds the exit status of the first command in the pipe, $PIPESTATUS[1] the exit status of the second command, and so on. The $PIPESTATUS variable may contain an erroneous 0 value in a login shell (in releases prior to 3.0 of Bash). tcsh% bash bash$ who | grep nobody | sort bash$ echo ${PIPESTATUS[*]} 0 The above lines contained in a script would produce the expected 0 1 0 output. Thank you, Wayne Pollock for pointing this out and supplying the above example. The $PIPESTATUS variable gives unexpected results in some contexts. bash$ echo $BASH_VERSION 3.00.14(1)-release bash$ $ ls | bogus_command | wc bash: bogus_command: command not found 0 0 0 bash$ echo ${PIPESTATUS[@]} 141 127 0 Chet Ramey attributes the above output to the behavior of ls. If ls writes to a pipe whose output is not read, then SIGPIPE kills it, and its exit status is 141. Otherwise its exit status is 0, as expected. This likewise is the case for tr. $PIPESTATUS is a volatile variable. It needs to be captured immediately after the pipe in question, before any other command intervenes. bash$ $ ls | bogus_command | wc bash: bogus_command: command not found 0 0 0 bash$ echo ${PIPESTATUS[@]} 0 127 0 bash$ echo ${PIPESTATUS[@]} 0 The pipefail option may be useful in cases where $PIPESTATUS does not give the desired information. $PPID $PPID variable $PPID process ID The $PPID of a process is the process ID (pid) of its parent process. The PID of the currently running script is $$, of course. Compare this with the pidof command. $PROMPT_COMMAND $PROMPT_COMMAND variable prompt A variable holding a command to be executed just before the primary prompt, $PS1 is to be displayed. $PS1 $PS1 variable $PS1 prompt This is the main prompt, seen at the command line. $PS2 $PS2 variable $PS2 prompt secondary The secondary prompt, seen when additional input is expected. It displays as >. $PS3 $PS3 variable $PS3 prompt tertiary The tertiary prompt, displayed in a select loop (see ). $PS4 $PS4 variable $PS4 prompt quartenary The quartenary prompt, shown at the beginning of each line of output when invoking a script with the -x option. It displays as +. $PWD $PWD variable $PWD working directory directory working working directory (directory you are in at the time) This is the analog to the pwd builtin command. &wipedir; $REPLY $REPLY variable $REPLY default value of read reply read The default value when a variable is not supplied to read. Also applicable to select menus, but only supplies the item number of the variable chosen, not the value of the variable itself. &reply; $SECONDS $SECONDS variable $SECONDS seconds execution time runtime seconds The number of seconds the script has been running. &seconds; $SHELLOPTS $SHELLOPTS variable $SHELLOPTS shell options the list of enabled shell options, a readonly variable bash$ echo $SHELLOPTS braceexpand:hashall:histexpand:monitor:history:interactive-comments:emacs $SHLVL $SHLVL variable $SHLVL shell level Shell level, how deeply Bash is nested. Somewhat analogous to recursion, in this context nesting refers to a pattern embedded within a larger pattern. One of the definitions of nest, according to the 1913 edition of Webster's Dictionary, illustrates this beautifully: A collection of boxes, cases, or the like, of graduated size, each put within the one next larger. If, at the command line, $SHLVL is 1, then in a script it will increment to 2. This variable is not affected by subshells. Use $BASH_SUBSHELL when you need an indication of subshell nesting. $TMOUT $TMOUT variable $TMOUT timeout interval If the $TMOUT environmental variable is set to a non-zero value time, then the shell prompt will time out after $time seconds. This will cause a logout. As of version 2.05b of Bash, it is now possible to use $TMOUT in a script in combination with read. # Works in scripts for Bash, versions 2.05b and later. TMOUT=3 # Prompt times out at three seconds. echo "What is your favorite song?" echo "Quickly now, you only have $TMOUT seconds to answer!" read song if [ -z "$song" ] then song="(no answer)" # Default response. fi echo "Your favorite song is $song." There are other, more complex, ways of implementing timed input in a script. One alternative is to set up a timing loop to signal the script when it times out. This also requires a signal handling routine to trap (see ) the interrupt generated by the timing loop (whew!). Timed Input &tmdin; An alternative is using stty. Once more, timed input &timeout; Perhaps the simplest method is using the option to read. Timed <firstterm>read</firstterm> &tout; $UID $UID variable $UID user ID user ID number Current user's user identification number, as recorded in /etc/passwd This is the current user's real id, even if she has temporarily assumed another identity through su. $UID is a readonly variable, not subject to change from the command line or within a script, and is the counterpart to the id builtin. Am I root? &amiroot; See also . The variables $ENV, $LOGNAME, $MAIL, $TERM, $USER, and $USERNAME are not Bash builtins. These are, however, often set as environmental variables in one of the Bash startup files. $SHELL, the name of the user's login shell, may be set from /etc/passwd or in an init script, and it is likewise not a Bash builtin. tcsh% echo $LOGNAME bozo tcsh% echo $SHELL /bin/tcsh tcsh% echo $TERM rxvt bash$ echo $LOGNAME bozo bash$ echo $SHELL /bin/tcsh bash$ echo $TERM rxvt Positional Parameters $0, $1, $2, etc. $0 variable $0 positional parameter parameter positional Positional parameters, passed from command line to script, passed to a function, or set to a variable (see and ) $# $# variable $# positional parameter number of parameter positional number of Number of command line arguments The words argument and parameter are often used interchangeably. In the context of this document, they have the same precise meaning: a variable passed to a script or function. or positional parameters (see ) $* $* variable $* positional parameter all parameter positional all All of the positional parameters, seen as a single word $* must be quoted. $@ $@ variable $* positional parameter all Same as $*, but each parameter is a quoted string, that is, the parameters are passed on intact, without interpretation or expansion. This means, among other things, that each parameter in the argument list is seen as a separate word. Of course, $@ should be quoted. <firstterm>arglist</firstterm>: Listing arguments with $* and $@ &arglist; Following a shift, the $@ holds the remaining command-line parameters, lacking the previous $1, which was lost. #!/bin/bash # Invoke with ./scriptname 1 2 3 4 5 echo "$@" # 1 2 3 4 5 shift echo "$@" # 2 3 4 5 shift echo "$@" # 3 4 5 # Each "shift" loses parameter $1. # "$@" then contains the remaining parameters. The $@ special parameter finds use as a tool for filtering input into shell scripts. The cat "$@" construction accepts input to a script either from stdin or from files given as parameters to the script. See and . The $* and $@ parameters sometimes display inconsistent and puzzling behavior, depending on the setting of $IFS. Inconsistent <varname>$*</varname> and <varname>$@</varname> behavior &incompat; The $@ and $* parameters differ only when between double quotes. <varname>$*</varname> and <varname>$@</varname> when <varname>$IFS</varname> is empty &ifsempty; Other Special Parameters $- $- variable $- flags Flags passed to script (using set). See . This was originally a ksh construct adopted into Bash, and unfortunately it does not seem to work reliably in Bash scripts. One possible use for it is to have a script self-test whether it is interactive. $! $! variable $! PID last job background PID (process ID) of last job run in background LOG=$0.log COMMAND1="sleep 100" echo "Logging PIDs background commands for script: $0" >> "$LOG" # So they can be monitored, and killed as necessary. echo >> "$LOG" # Logging commands. echo -n "PID of \"$COMMAND1\": " >> "$LOG" ${COMMAND1} & echo $! >> "$LOG" # PID of "sleep 100": 1506 # Thank you, Jacques Lederer, for suggesting this. Using $! for job control: possibly_hanging_job & { sleep ${TIMEOUT}; eval 'kill -9 $!' &> /dev/null; } # Forces completion of an ill-behaved program. # Useful, for example, in init scripts. # Thank you, Sylvain Fourmanoit, for this creative use of the "!" variable. Or, alternately: # This example by Matthew Sage. # Used with permission. TIMEOUT=30 # Timeout value in seconds count=0 possibly_hanging_job & { while ((count < TIMEOUT )); do eval '[ ! -d "/proc/$!" ] && ((count = TIMEOUT))' # /proc is where information about running processes is found. # "-d" tests whether it exists (whether directory exists). # So, we're waiting for the job in question to show up. ((count++)) sleep 1 done eval '[ -d "/proc/$!" ] && kill -15 $!' # If the hanging job is running, kill it. } $_ $_ variable $_ underscore last argument Special variable set to last argument of previous command executed. Underscore variable #!/bin/bash echo $_ # /bin/bash # Just called /bin/bash to run the script. du >/dev/null # So no output from command. echo $_ # du ls -al >/dev/null # So no output from command. echo $_ # -al (last argument) : echo $_ # : $? $? variable $? exit status Exit status of a command, function, or the script itself (see ) $$ $$ variable $$ PID of script Process ID of the script itself. The $$ variable often finds use in scripts to construct unique temp file names (see , , , and ). This is usually simpler than invoking mktemp. Manipulating Strings Bash supports a surprising number of string manipulation operations. Unfortunately, these tools lack a unified focus. Some are a subset of parameter substitution, and others fall under the functionality of the UNIX expr command. This results in inconsistent command syntax and overlap of functionality, not to mention confusion. String Length ${#string} string length parameter substitution expr length $string string length expr These are the equivalent of strlen() in C. expr "$string" : '.*' string length expr stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc echo ${#stringZ} # 15 echo `expr length $stringZ` # 15 echo `expr "$stringZ" : '.*'` # 15 Inserting a blank line between paragraphs in a text file ¶graphspace; Length of Matching Substring at Beginning of String expr match "$string" '$substring' substring length expr $substring is a regular expression. expr "$string" : '$substring' substring length expr $substring is a regular expression. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # |------| # 12345678 echo `expr match "$stringZ" 'abc[A-Z]*.2'` # 8 echo `expr "$stringZ" : 'abc[A-Z]*.2'` # 8 Index expr index $string $substring substring index expr Numerical position in $string of first character in $substring that matches. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # 123456 ... echo `expr index "$stringZ" C12` # 6 # C position. echo `expr index "$stringZ" 1c` # 3 # 'c' (in #3 position) matches before '1'. This is the near equivalent of strchr() in C. Substring Extraction ${string:position} substring extraction Extracts substring from $string at $position. If the $string parameter is * or @, then this extracts the positional parameters, This applies to either command-line arguments or parameters passed to a function. starting at $position. ${string:position:length} substring extraction Extracts $length characters of substring from $string at $position. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # 0123456789..... # 0-based indexing. echo ${stringZ:0} # abcABC123ABCabc echo ${stringZ:1} # bcABC123ABCabc echo ${stringZ:7} # 23ABCabc echo ${stringZ:7:3} # 23A # Three characters of substring. # Is it possible to index from the right end of the string? echo ${stringZ:-4} # abcABC123ABCabc # Defaults to full string, as in ${parameter:-default}. # However . . . echo ${stringZ:(-4)} # Cabc echo ${stringZ: -4} # Cabc # Now, it works. # Parentheses or added space "escape" the position parameter. # Thank you, Dan Jacobson, for pointing this out. The position and length arguments can be parameterized, that is, represented as a variable, rather than as a numerical constant. Generating an 8-character <quote>random</quote> string &randstring; If the $string parameter is * or @, then this extracts a maximum of $length positional parameters, starting at $position. echo ${*:2} # Echoes second and following positional parameters. echo ${@:2} # Same as above. echo ${*:2:3} # Echoes three positional parameters, starting at second. expr substr $string $position $length substring extraction expr Extracts $length characters from $string starting at $position. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # 123456789...... # 1-based indexing. echo `expr substr $stringZ 1 2` # ab echo `expr substr $stringZ 4 3` # ABC expr match "$string" '$$substring$' substring extraction expr Extracts $substring at beginning of $string, where $substring is a regular expression. expr "$string" : '$$substring$' substring extraction expr Extracts $substring at beginning of $string, where $substring is a regular expression. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # ======= echo `expr match "$stringZ" '$.[b-c]*[A-Z]..[0-9]$'` # abcABC1 echo `expr "$stringZ" : '$.[b-c]*[A-Z]..[0-9]$'` # abcABC1 echo `expr "$stringZ" : '$.......$'` # abcABC1 # All of the above forms give an identical result. expr match "$string" '.*$$substring$' substring extraction expr Extracts $substring at end of $string, where $substring is a regular expression. expr "$string" : '.*$$substring$' substring extraction expr Extracts $substring at end of $string, where $substring is a regular expression. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # ====== echo `expr match "$stringZ" '.*$[A-C][A-C][A-C][a-c]*$'` # ABCabc echo `expr "$stringZ" : '.*$......$'` # ABCabc Substring Removal ${string#substring} substring removal Deletes shortest match of $substring from front of $string. ${string##substring} substring removal Deletes longest match of $substring from front of $string. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # |----| shortest # |----------| longest echo ${stringZ#a*C} # 123ABCabc # Strip out shortest match between 'a' and 'C'. echo ${stringZ##a*C} # abc # Strip out longest match between 'a' and 'C'. ${string%substring} substring removal Deletes shortest match of $substring from back of $string. For example: # Rename all filenames in $PWD with "TXT" suffix to a "txt" suffix. # For example, "file1.TXT" becomes "file1.txt" . . . SUFF=TXT suff=txt for i in $(ls *.$SUFF) do mv -f $i ${i%.$SUFF}.$suff # Leave unchanged everything *except* the shortest pattern match #+ starting from the right-hand-side of the variable $i . . . done ### This could be condensed into a "one-liner" if desired. # Thank you, Rory Winston. ${string%%substring} substring removal Deletes longest match of $substring from back of $string. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc # || shortest # |------------| longest echo ${stringZ%b*c} # abcABC123ABCa # Strip out shortest match between 'b' and 'c', from back of $stringZ. echo ${stringZ%%b*c} # a # Strip out longest match between 'b' and 'c', from back of $stringZ. This operator is useful for generating filenames. Converting graphic file formats, with filename change &cvt; Converting streaming audio files to <firstterm>ogg</firstterm> &ra2ogg; A simple emulation of getopt using substring-extraction constructs. Emulating <firstterm>getopt</firstterm> &getoptsimple; Substring Replacement ${string/substring/replacement} substring replacement Replace first match of $substring with $replacement. ${string//substring/replacement} substring replacement Replace all matches of $substring with $replacement. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc echo ${stringZ/abc/xyz} # xyzABC123ABCabc # Replaces first match of 'abc' with 'xyz'. echo ${stringZ//abc/xyz} # xyzABC123ABCxyz # Replaces all matches of 'abc' with # 'xyz'. # What happens if no $replacement string is supplied? echo ${stringZ/abc} # ABC123ABCabc echo ${stringZ//abc} # ABC123ABC # A simple deletion takes place. ${string/#substring/replacement} substring replacement If $substring matches front end of $string, substitute $replacement for $substring. ${string/%substring/replacement} substring replacement If $substring matches back end of $string, substitute $replacement for $substring. stringZ=abcABC123ABCabc echo ${stringZ/#abc/XYZ} # XYZABC123ABCabc # Replaces front-end match of 'abc' with 'XYZ'. echo ${stringZ/%abc/XYZ} # abcABC123ABCXYZ # Replaces back-end match of 'abc' with 'XYZ'. Manipulating strings using awk A Bash script may invoke the string manipulation facilities of awk as an alternative to using its built-in operations. Alternate ways of extracting and locating substrings &substringex; Further Reference For more on string manipulation in scripts, refer to and the relevant section of the expr command listing. Script examples: Parameter Substitution <anchor id="pssub1">Manipulating and/or expanding variables ${parameter} Same as $parameter, i.e., value of the variable parameter. In certain contexts, only the less ambiguous ${parameter} form works. May be used for concatenating variables with strings. your_id=${USER}-on-${HOSTNAME} echo "$your_id" # echo "Old \$PATH = $PATH" PATH=${PATH}:/opt/bin #Add /opt/bin to $PATH for duration of script. echo "New \$PATH = $PATH" ${parameter-default} ${parameter:-default} If parameter not set, use default. echo ${username-`whoami`} # Echoes the result of `whoami`, if variable $username is still unset. ${parameter-default} and ${parameter:-default} are almost equivalent. The extra : makes a difference only when parameter has been declared, but is null. ¶msub; The default parameter construct finds use in providing missing command-line arguments in scripts. DEFAULT_FILENAME=generic.data filename=${1:-$DEFAULT_FILENAME} # If not otherwise specified, the following command block operates #+ on the file "generic.data". # # Commands follow. See also , , and . Compare this method with using an and list to supply a default command-line argument. ${parameter=default} ${parameter:=default} If parameter not set, set it to default. Both forms nearly equivalent. The : makes a difference only when $parameter has been declared and is null, If $parameter is null in a non-interactive script, it will terminate with a 127 exit status (the Bash error code for command not found). as above. echo ${username=`whoami`} # Variable "username" is now set to `whoami`. ${parameter+alt_value} ${parameter:+alt_value} If parameter set, use alt_value, else use null string. Both forms nearly equivalent. The : makes a difference only when parameter has been declared and is null, see below. echo "###### \${parameter+alt_value} ########" echo a=${param1+xyz} echo "a = $a" # a = param2= a=${param2+xyz} echo "a = $a" # a = xyz param3=123 a=${param3+xyz} echo "a = $a" # a = xyz echo echo "###### \${parameter:+alt_value} ########" echo a=${param4:+xyz} echo "a = $a" # a = param5= a=${param5:+xyz} echo "a = $a" # a = # Different result from a=${param5+xyz} param6=123 a=${param6:+xyz} echo "a = $a" # a = xyz ${parameter?err_msg} ${parameter:?err_msg} If parameter set, use it, else print err_msg. Both forms nearly equivalent. The : makes a difference only when parameter has been declared and is null, as above. Using parameter substitution and error messages &ex6; Parameter substitution and <quote>usage</quote> messages &usagemessage; Parameter substitution and/or expansion The following expressions are the complement to the match in expr string operations (see ). These particular ones are used mostly in parsing file path names. <anchor id="psorex1">Variable length / Substring removal ${#var} String length (number of characters in $var). For an array, ${#array} is the length of the first element in the array. Exceptions: ${#*} and ${#@} give the number of positional parameters. For an array, ${#array[*]} and ${#array[@]} give the number of elements in the array. Length of a variable &length; ${var#Pattern} ${var##Pattern} ${var#Pattern} Remove from $var the shortest part of $Pattern that matches the front end of $var. ${var##Pattern} Remove from $var the longest part of $Pattern that matches the front end of $var. A usage illustration from : # Function from "days-between.sh" example. # Strips leading zero(s) from argument passed. strip_leading_zero () # Strip possible leading zero(s) { #+ from argument passed. return=${1#0} # The "1" refers to "$1" -- passed arg. } # The "0" is what to remove from "$1" -- strips zeros. Manfred Schwarb's more elaborate variation of the above: strip_leading_zero2 () # Strip possible leading zero(s), since otherwise { # Bash will interpret such numbers as octal values. shopt -s extglob # Turn on extended globbing. local val=${1##+(0)} # Use local variable, longest matching series of 0's. shopt -u extglob # Turn off extended globbing. _strip_leading_zero2=${val:-0} # If input was 0, return 0 instead of "". } Another usage illustration: echo `basename $PWD` # Basename of current working directory. echo "${PWD##*/}" # Basename of current working directory. echo echo `basename $0` # Name of script. echo $0 # Name of script. echo "${0##*/}" # Name of script. echo filename=test.data echo "${filename##*.}" # data # Extension of filename. ${var%Pattern} ${var%%Pattern} {$var%Pattern} Remove from $var the shortest part of $Pattern that matches the back end of $var. {$var%%Pattern} Remove from $var the longest part of $Pattern that matches the back end of $var. Version 2 of Bash added additional options. Pattern matching in parameter substitution &pattmatching; Renaming file extensions<token>:</token> &rfe; <anchor id="exprepl1">Variable expansion / Substring replacement These constructs have been adopted from ksh. ${var:pos} Variable var expanded, starting from offset pos. ${var:pos:len} Expansion to a max of len characters of variable var, from offset pos. See for an example of the creative use of this operator. ${var/Pattern/Replacement} First match of Pattern, within var replaced with Replacement. If Replacement is omitted, then the first match of Pattern is replaced by nothing, that is, deleted. ${var//Pattern/Replacement} Global replacement All matches of Pattern, within var replaced with Replacement. As above, if Replacement is omitted, then all occurrences of Pattern are replaced by nothing, that is, deleted. Using pattern matching to parse arbitrary strings &ex7; ${var/#Pattern/Replacement} If prefix of var matches Pattern, then substitute Replacement for Pattern. ${var/%Pattern/Replacement} If suffix of var matches Pattern, then substitute Replacement for Pattern. Matching patterns at prefix or suffix of string &varmatch; ${!varprefix*} ${!varprefix@} Matches names of all previously declared variables beginning with varprefix. # This is a variation on indirect reference, but with a * or @. # Bash, version 2.04, adds this feature. xyz23=whatever xyz24= a=${!xyz*} # Expands to *names* of declared variables # ^ ^ ^ + beginning with "xyz". echo "a = $a" # a = xyz23 xyz24 a=${!xyz@} # Same as above. echo "a = $a" # a = xyz23 xyz24 echo "---" abc23=something_else b=${!abc*} echo "b = $b" # b = abc23 c=${!b} # Now, the more familiar type of indirect reference. echo $c # something_else declare typeset command declare command typeset Typing variables: <command>declare</command> or <command>typeset</command> The declare or typeset builtins, which are exact synonyms, permit modifying the properties of variables. This is a very weak form of the typing In this context, typing a variable means to classify it and restrict its properties. For example, a variable declared or typed as an integer is no longer available for string operations. declare -i intvar intvar=23 echo "$intvar" # 23 intvar=stringval echo "$intvar" # 0 available in certain programming languages. The declare command is specific to version 2 or later of Bash. The typeset command also works in ksh scripts. <anchor id="declareopsref1">declare/typeset options -r readonly (declare -r var1 works the same as readonly var1) This is the rough equivalent of the C const type qualifier. An attempt to change the value of a readonly variable fails with an error message. declare -r var1=1 echo "var1 = $var1" # var1 = 1 (( var1++ )) # x.sh: line 4: var1: readonly variable -i integer declare -i number # The script will treat subsequent occurrences of "number" as an integer. number=3 echo "Number = $number" # Number = 3 number=three echo "Number = $number" # Number = 0 # Tries to evaluate the string "three" as an integer. Certain arithmetic operations are permitted for declared integer variables without the need for expr or let. n=6/3 echo "n = $n" # n = 6/3 declare -i n n=6/3 echo "n = $n" # n = 2 -a array declare -a indices The variable indices will be treated as an array. -f function(s) declare -f A declare -f line with no arguments in a script causes a listing of all the functions previously defined in that script. declare -f function_name A declare -f function_name in a script lists just the function named. -x export declare -x var3 This declares a variable as available for exporting outside the environment of the script itself. -x var=$value declare -x var3=373 The declare command permits assigning a value to a variable in the same statement as setting its properties. Using <firstterm>declare</firstterm> to type variables &ex20; Using the declare builtin restricts the scope of a variable. foo () { FOO="bar" } bar () { foo echo $FOO } bar # Prints bar. However . . . foo (){ declare FOO="bar" } bar () { foo echo $FOO } bar # Prints nothing. # Thank you, Michael Iatrou, for pointing this out. Indirect References We have seen that referencing a variable, $var, fetches its value. But, what about the value of a value? What about $$var? The actual notation is \$$var, usually preceded by an eval (and sometimes an echo). This is called an indirect reference. Indirect Variable References &indref; Of what practical use is indirect referencing of variables? It gives Bash a little of the functionality of pointers in C, for instance, in table lookup. And, it also has some other very interesting applications. . . . Nils Radtke shows how to build dynamic variable names and evaluate their contents. This can be useful when sourcing configuration files. #!/bin/bash # --------------------------------------------- # This could be "sourced" from a separate file. isdnMyProviderRemoteNet=172.16.0.100 isdnYourProviderRemoteNet=10.0.0.10 isdnOnlineService="MyProvider" # --------------------------------------------- remoteNet=$(eval "echo \$$(echo isdn${isdnOnlineService}RemoteNet)") remoteNet=$(eval "echo \$$(echo isdnMyProviderRemoteNet)") remoteNet=$(eval "echo \$isdnMyProviderRemoteNet") remoteNet=$(eval "echo $isdnMyProviderRemoteNet") echo "$remoteNet" # 172.16.0.100 # ================================================================ # And, it gets even better. # Consider the following snippet given a variable named getSparc, #+ but no such variable getIa64: chkMirrorArchs () { arch="$1"; if [ "$(eval "echo \${$(echo get$(echo -ne $arch | sed 's/^$.$.*/\1/g' | tr 'a-z' 'A-Z'; echo $arch | sed 's/^.$.*$/\1/g')):-false}")" = true ] then return 0; else return 1; fi; } getSparc="true" unset getIa64 chkMirrorArchs sparc echo $? # 0 # True chkMirrorArchs Ia64 echo $? # 1 # False # Notes: # ----- # Even the to-be-substituted variable name part is built explicitly. # The parameters to the chkMirrorArchs calls are all lower case. # The variable name is composed of two parts: "get" and "Sparc" . . . Passing an indirect reference to <firstterm>awk</firstterm> &coltotaler2; This method of indirect referencing is a bit tricky. If the second order variable changes its value, then the first order variable must be properly dereferenced (as in the above example). Fortunately, the ${!variable} notation introduced with version 2 of Bash (see and ) makes indirect referencing more intuitive. Bash does not support pointer arithmetic, and this severely limits the usefulness of indirect referencing. In fact, indirect referencing in a scripting language is, at best, an afterthought. $RANDOM variable $RANDOM $RANDOM: generate random integer $RANDOM is an internal Bash function (not a constant) that returns a pseudorandom True randomness, insofar as it exists at all, can only be found in certain incompletely understood natural phenomena, such as radioactive decay. Computers only simulate randomness, and computer-generated sequences of random numbers are therefore referred to as pseudorandom. integer in the range 0 - 32767. It should not be used to generate an encryption key. Generating random numbers &ex21; Picking a random card from a deck &pickcard; Brownian Motion Simulation &brownian; Jipe points out a set of techniques for generating random numbers within a range. # Generate random number between 6 and 30. rnumber=$((RANDOM%25+6)) # Generate random number in the same 6 - 30 range, #+ but the number must be evenly divisible by 3. rnumber=$(((RANDOM%30/3+1)*3)) # Note that this will not work all the time. # It fails if $RANDOM%30 returns 0. # Frank Wang suggests the following alternative: rnumber=$(( RANDOM%27/3*3+6 )) Bill Gradwohl came up with an improved formula that works for positive numbers. rnumber=$(((RANDOM%(max-min+divisibleBy))/divisibleBy*divisibleBy+min)) Here Bill presents a versatile function that returns a random number between two specified values. Random between values &randombetween; Just how random is $RANDOM? The best way to test this is to write a script that tracks the distribution of random numbers generated by $RANDOM. Let's roll a $RANDOM die a few times . . . Rolling a single die with RANDOM &randomtest; As we have seen in the last example, it is best to reseed the RANDOM generator each time it is invoked. Using the same seed for RANDOM repeats the same series of numbers. The seed of a computer-generated pseudorandom number series can be considered an identification label. For example, think of the pseudorandom series with a seed of 23 as Series #23. A property of a pseurandom number series is the length of the cycle before it starts repeating itself. A good pseurandom generator will produce series with very long cycles. (This mirrors the behavior of the random() function in C.) Reseeding RANDOM &seedingrandom; The /dev/urandom pseudo-device file provides a method of generating much more random pseudorandom numbers than the $RANDOM variable. dd if=/dev/urandom of=targetfile bs=1 count=XX creates a file of well-scattered pseudorandom numbers. However, assigning these numbers to a variable in a script requires a workaround, such as filtering through od (as in above example, , and ), or even piping to md5sum (see ). There are also other ways to generate pseudorandom numbers in a script. Awk provides a convenient means of doing this. Pseudorandom numbers, using <link linkend="awkref">awk</link> &random2; The date command also lends itself to generating pseudorandom integer sequences. The Double-Parentheses Construct Similar to the let command, the (( ... )) construct permits arithmetic expansion and evaluation. In its simplest form, a=$(( 5 + 3 )) would set a to 5 + 3, or 8. However, this double-parentheses construct is also a mechanism for allowing C-style manipulation of variables in Bash, for example, (( var++ )). C-style manipulation of variables &cvars; See also and . Loops and Branches What needs this iteration, woman? --Shakespeare, Othello Operations on code blocks are the key to structured and organized shell scripts. Looping and branching constructs provide the tools for accomplishing this. Loops A loop is a block of code that iterates Iteration: Repeated execution of a command or group of commands -- usually, but not always -- while a given condition holds, or until a given condition is met. a list of commands as long as the loop control condition is true. <anchor id="forloopref1">for loops for arg in [list] for in do done loop for This is the basic looping construct. It differs significantly from its C counterpart. for arg in list do command(s) done During each pass through the loop, arg takes on the value of each successive variable in the list. for arg in "$var1" "$var2" "$var3" ... "$varN" # In pass 1 of the loop, arg = $var1 # In pass 2 of the loop, arg = $var2 # In pass 3 of the loop, arg = $var3 # ... # In pass N of the loop, arg = $varN # Arguments in [list] quoted to prevent possible word splitting. The argument list may contain wild cards. If do is on same line as for, there needs to be a semicolon after list. for arg in list ; do Simple <firstterm>for</firstterm> loops &ex22; Each [list] element may contain multiple parameters. This is useful when processing parameters in groups. In such cases, use the set command (see ) to force parsing of each [list] element and assignment of each component to the positional parameters. <firstterm>for</firstterm> loop with two parameters in each [list] element &ex22a; A variable may supply the [list] in a for loop. <emphasis>Fileinfo:</emphasis> operating on a file list contained in a variable &fileinfo; If the [list] in a for loop contains wild cards (* and ?) used in filename expansion, then globbing takes place. Operating on files with a <firstterm>for</firstterm> loop &listglob; Omitting the in [list] part of a for loop causes the loop to operate on $@ -- the positional parameters. A particularly clever illustration of this is . See also . Missing <userinput>in [list]</userinput> in a <firstterm>for</firstterm> loop &ex23; It is possible to use command substitution to generate the [list] in a for loop. See also , and . Generating the <userinput>[list]</userinput> in a <firstterm>for</firstterm> loop with command substitution &forloopcmd; Here is a somewhat more complex example of using command substitution to create the [list]. A <firstterm>grep</firstterm> replacement for binary files &bingrep; More of the same. Listing all users on the system &userlist; Yet another example of the [list] resulting from command substitution. Checking all the binaries in a directory for authorship &findstring; A final example of [list] / command substitution, but this time the command is a function. generate_list () { echo "one two three" } for word in $(generate_list) # Let "word" grab output of function. do echo "$word" done # one # two # three The output of a for loop may be piped to a command or commands. Listing the <firstterm>symbolic links</firstterm> in a directory &symlinks; The stdout of a loop may be redirected to a file, as this slight modification to the previous example shows. Symbolic links in a directory, saved to a file &symlinks2; There is an alternative syntax to a for loop that will look very familiar to C programmers. This requires double parentheses. A C-style <firstterm>for</firstterm> loop &forloopc; See also , , and . --- Now, a for loop used in a real-life context. Using <firstterm>efax</firstterm> in batch mode &ex24; while while do done loop while This construct tests for a condition at the top of a loop, and keeps looping as long as that condition is true (returns a 0 exit status). In contrast to a for loop, a while loop finds use in situations where the number of loop repetitions is not known beforehand. while condition do command(s) done The bracket construct in a while loop is nothing more than our old friend, the test brackets used in an if/then test. In fact, a while loop can legally use the more versatile double-brackets construct (while [[ condition ]]). As is the case with for loops, placing the do on the same line as the condition test requires a semicolon. while condition ; do Note that the test brackets are not mandatory in a while loop. See, for example, the getopts construct. Simple <firstterm>while</firstterm> loop &ex25; Another <firstterm>while</firstterm> loop &ex26; A while loop may have multiple conditions. Only the final condition determines when the loop terminates. This necessitates a slightly different loop syntax, however. <firstterm>while</firstterm> loop with multiple conditions &ex26a; As with a for loop, a while loop may employ C-style syntax by using the double-parentheses construct (see also ). C-style syntax in a <firstterm>while</firstterm> loop &whloopc; Inside its test brackets, a while loop can call a function. t=0 condition () { ((t++)) if [ $t -lt 5 ] then return 0 # true else return 1 # false fi } while condition # ^^^^^^^^^ # Function call -- four loop iterations. do echo "Still going: t = $t" done # Still going: t = 1 # Still going: t = 2 # Still going: t = 3 # Still going: t = 4 Similar to the if-test construct, a while loop can omit the test brackets. while condition do ... done By coupling the power of the read command with a while loop, we get the handy while read construct, useful for reading and parsing files. cat $filename | # Supply input from a file. while read line # As long as there is another line to read ... do ... done # =========== Snippet from "sd.sh" example script ========== # while read value # Read one data point at a time. do rt=$(echo "scale=$SC; $rt + $value" | bc) (( ct++ )) done am=$(echo "scale=$SC; $rt / $ct" | bc) echo $am; return $ct # This function "returns" TWO values! # Caution: This little trick will not work if $ct > 255! # To handle a larger number of data points, #+ simply comment out the "return $ct" above. } <"$datafile" # Feed in data file. A while loop may have its stdin redirected to a file by a < at its end. A while loop may have its stdin supplied by a pipe. until until do done loop until This construct tests for a condition at the top of a loop, and keeps looping as long as that condition is false (opposite of while loop). until condition-is-true do command(s) done Note that an until loop tests for the terminating condition at the top of the loop, differing from a similar construct in some programming languages. As is the case with for loops, placing the do on the same line as the condition test requires a semicolon. until condition-is-true ; do <firstterm>until</firstterm> loop &ex27; How to choose between a for loop or a while loop or until loop? In C, you would typically use a for loop when the number of loop iterations is known beforehand. With Bash, however, the situation is fuzzier. The Bash for loop is more loosely structured and more flexible than its equivalent in other languages. Therefore, feel free to use whatever type of loop gets the job done in the simplest way. Nested Loops A nested loop is a loop within a loop, an inner loop within the body of an outer one. How this works is that the first pass of the outer loop triggers the inner loop, which executes to completion. Then the second pass of the outer loop triggers the inner loop again. This repeats until the outer loop finishes. Of course, a break within either the inner or outer loop would interrupt this process. Nested Loop &nestedloop; See for an illustration of nested while loops, and to see a while loop nested inside an until loop. Loop Control Tournez cent tours, tournez mille tours, Tournez souvent et tournez toujours . . . --Verlaine, Chevaux de bois <anchor id="brkcont1">Commands affecting loop behavior break continue loop break loop continue break continue The break and continue loop control commands These are shell builtins, whereas other loop commands, such as while and case, are keywords. correspond exactly to their counterparts in other programming languages. The break command terminates the loop (breaks out of it), while continue causes a jump to the next iteration of the loop, skipping all the remaining commands in that particular loop cycle. Effects of <firstterm>break</firstterm> and <command>continue</command> in a loop &ex28; The break command may optionally take a parameter. A plain break terminates only the innermost loop in which it is embedded, but a break N breaks out of N levels of loop. Breaking out of multiple loop levels &breaklevels; The continue command, similar to break, optionally takes a parameter. A plain continue cuts short the current iteration within its loop and begins the next. A continue N terminates all remaining iterations at its loop level and continues with the next iteration at the loop, levels above. Continuing at a higher loop level &continuelevels; Using <firstterm>continue N</firstterm> in an actual task &continuenex; The continue N construct is difficult to understand and tricky to use in any meaningful context. It is probably best avoided. Testing and Branching The case and select constructs are technically not loops, since they do not iterate the execution of a code block. Like loops, however, they direct program flow according to conditions at the top or bottom of the block. <anchor id="caseesac1">Controlling program flow in a code block case (in) / esac case in esac switch ;; menus The case construct is the shell scripting analog to switch in C/C++. It permits branching to one of a number of code blocks, depending on condition tests. It serves as a kind of shorthand for multiple if/then/else statements and is an appropriate tool for creating menus. case "$variable" in "$condition1" ) command ;; "$condition2" ) command ;; esac Quoting the variables is not mandatory, since word splitting does not take place. Each test line ends with a right paren ). Each condition block ends with a double semicolon ;;. The entire case block terminates with an esac (case spelled backwards). Using <firstterm>case</firstterm> &ex29; Creating menus using <firstterm>case</firstterm> &ex30; An exceptionally clever use of case involves testing for command-line parameters. #! /bin/bash case "$1" in "") echo "Usage: ${0##*/} <filename>"; exit $E_PARAM;; # No command-line parameters, # or first parameter empty. # Note that ${0##*/} is ${var##pattern} param substitution. # Net result is $0. -*) FILENAME=./$1;; # If filename passed as argument ($1) #+ starts with a dash, #+ replace it with ./$1 #+ so further commands don't interpret it #+ as an option. * ) FILENAME=$1;; # Otherwise, $1. esac Here is an more straightforward example of command-line parameter handling: #! /bin/bash while [ $# -gt 0 ]; do # Until you run out of parameters . . . case "$1" in -d|--debug) # "-d" or "--debug" parameter? DEBUG=1 ;; -c|--conf) CONFFILE="$2" shift if [ ! -f $CONFFILE ]; then echo "Error: Supplied file doesn't exist!" exit $E_CONFFILE # File not found error. fi ;; esac shift # Check next set of parameters. done # From Stefano Falsetto's "Log2Rot" script, #+ part of his "rottlog" package. # Used with permission. Using <firstterm>command substitution</firstterm> to generate the <firstterm>case</firstterm> variable &casecmd; A case construct can filter strings for globbing patterns. Simple string matching &matchstring; Checking for alphabetic input &isalpha; select select menus The select construct, adopted from the Korn Shell, is yet another tool for building menus. select variable in list do command break done This prompts the user to enter one of the choices presented in the variable list. Note that select uses the $PS3 prompt (#? ) by default, but this may be changed. Creating menus using <firstterm>select</firstterm> &ex31; If in list is omitted, then select uses the list of command line arguments ($@) passed to the script or to the function in which the select construct is embedded. Compare this to the behavior of a for variable in list construct with the in list omitted. Creating menus using <firstterm>select</firstterm> in a function &ex32; See also . Command Substitution $ special character ` Command substitution reassigns the output of a command For purposes of command substitution, a command may be an external system command, an internal scripting builtin, or even a script function. or even multiple commands; it literally plugs the command output into another context. In a more technically correct sense, command substitution extracts the stdout of a command, then assigns it to a variable using the = operator. The classic form of command substitution uses backquotes (`...`). Commands within backquotes (backticks) generate command line text. script_name=`basename $0` echo "The name of this script is $script_name." The output of commands can be used as arguments to another command, to set a variable, and even for generating the argument list in a <link linkend="forloopref1">for</link> loop. rm `cat filename` # filename contains a list of files to delete. # # S. C. points out that "arg list too long" error might result. # Better is xargs rm -- < filename # ( -- covers those cases where filename begins with a - ) textfile_listing=`ls *.txt` # Variable contains names of all *.txt files in current working directory. echo $textfile_listing textfile_listing2=$(ls *.txt) # The alternative form of command substitution. echo $textfile_listing2 # Same result. # A possible problem with putting a list of files into a single string # is that a newline may creep in. # # A safer way to assign a list of files to a parameter is with an array. # shopt -s nullglob # If no match, filename expands to nothing. # textfile_listing=( *.txt ) # # Thanks, S.C. Command substitution invokes a subshell. Command substitution may result in word splitting. COMMAND `echo a b` # 2 args: a and b COMMAND "`echo a b`" # 1 arg: "a b" COMMAND `echo` # no arg COMMAND "`echo`" # one empty arg # Thanks, S.C. Even when there is no word splitting, command substitution can remove trailing newlines. # cd "`pwd`" # This should always work. # However... mkdir 'dir with trailing newline ' cd 'dir with trailing newline ' cd "`pwd`" # Error message: # bash: cd: /tmp/file with trailing newline: No such file or directory cd "$PWD" # Works fine. old_tty_setting=$(stty -g) # Save old terminal setting. echo "Hit a key " stty -icanon -echo # Disable "canonical" mode for terminal. # Also, disable *local* echo. key=$(dd bs=1 count=1 2> /dev/null) # Using 'dd' to get a keypress. stty "$old_tty_setting" # Restore old setting. echo "You hit ${#key} key." # ${#variable} = number of characters in $variable # # Hit any key except RETURN, and the output is "You hit 1 key." # Hit RETURN, and it's "You hit 0 key." # The newline gets eaten in the command substitution. Thanks, S.C. Using echo to output an unquoted variable set with command substitution removes trailing newlines characters from the output of the reassigned command(s). This can cause unpleasant surprises. dir_listing=`ls -l` echo $dir_listing # unquoted # Expecting a nicely ordered directory listing. # However, what you get is: # total 3 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 30 May 13 17:15 1.txt -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo # bozo 51 May 15 20:57 t2.sh -rwxr-xr-x 1 bozo bozo 217 Mar 5 21:13 wi.sh # The newlines disappeared. echo "$dir_listing" # quoted # -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo 30 May 13 17:15 1.txt # -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo 51 May 15 20:57 t2.sh # -rwxr-xr-x 1 bozo 217 Mar 5 21:13 wi.sh Command substitution even permits setting a variable to the contents of a file, using either redirection or the cat command. variable1=`<file1` # Set "variable1" to contents of "file1". variable2=`cat file2` # Set "variable2" to contents of "file2". # This, however, forks a new process, #+ so the line of code executes slower than the above version. # Note: # The variables may contain embedded whitespace, #+ or even (horrors), control characters. # Excerpts from system file, /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit #+ (on a Red Hat Linux installation) if [ -f /fsckoptions ]; then fsckoptions=`cat /fsckoptions` ... fi # # if [ -e "/proc/ide/${disk[$device]}/media" ] ; then hdmedia=`cat /proc/ide/${disk[$device]}/media` ... fi # # if [ ! -n "`uname -r | grep -- "-"`" ]; then ktag="`cat /proc/version`" ... fi # # if [ $usb = "1" ]; then sleep 5 mouseoutput=`cat /proc/bus/usb/devices 2>/dev/null|grep -E "^I.*Cls=03.*Prot=02"` kbdoutput=`cat /proc/bus/usb/devices 2>/dev/null|grep -E "^I.*Cls=03.*Prot=01"` ... fi Do not set a variable to the contents of a long text file unless you have a very good reason for doing so. Do not set a variable to the contents of a binary file, even as a joke. Stupid script tricks &stupscr; Notice that a buffer overrun does not occur. This is one instance where an interpreted language, such as Bash, provides more protection from programmer mistakes than a compiled language. Command substitution permits setting a variable to the output of a loop. The key to this is grabbing the output of an echo command within the loop. Generating a variable from a loop &csubloop; Command substitution makes it possible to extend the toolset available to Bash. It is simply a matter of writing a program or script that outputs to stdout (like a well-behaved UNIX tool should) and assigning that output to a variable. #include <stdio.h> /* "Hello, world." C program */ int main() { printf( "Hello, world." ); return (0); } bash$ gcc -o hello hello.c #!/bin/bash # hello.sh greeting=`./hello` echo $greeting bash$ sh hello.sh Hello, world. The $(...) form has superseded backticks for command substitution. output=$(sed -n /"$1"/p $file) # From "grp.sh" example. # Setting a variable to the contents of a text file. File_contents1=$(cat $file1) File_contents2=$(<$file2) # Bash permits this also. The $(...) form of command substitution treats a double backslash in a different way than `...`. bash$ echo `echo \\` bash$ echo $(echo \\) \ The $(...) form of command substitution permits nesting. In fact, nesting with backticks is also possible, but only by escaping the inner backticks, as John Default points out. word_count=` wc -w \`ls -l | awk '{print $9}'\` ` word_count=$( wc -w $(ls -l | awk '{print $9}') ) Or, for something a bit more elaborate . . . Finding anagrams &agram2; Examples of command substitution in shell scripts: Arithmetic Expansion Arithmetic expansion provides a powerful tool for performing (integer) arithmetic operations in scripts. Translating a string into a numerical expression is relatively straightforward using backticks, double parentheses, or let. <anchor id="arithexpvar1">Variations Arithmetic expansion with backticks (often used in conjunction with expr) arithmetic expansion arithmetic expansion z=`expr $z + 3` # The 'expr' command performs the expansion. Arithmetic expansion with double parentheses double parentheses and using let let let The use of backticks (backquotes) in arithmetic expansion has been superseded by double parentheses -- ((...)) and $((...)) -- and also by the very convenient let construction. z=$(($z+3)) z=$((z+3)) # Also correct. # Within double parentheses, #+ parameter dereferencing #+ is optional. # $((EXPRESSION)) is arithmetic expansion. # Not to be confused with #+ command substitution. # You may also use operations within double parentheses without assignment. n=0 echo "n = $n" # n = 0 (( n += 1 )) # Increment. # (( $n += 1 )) is incorrect! echo "n = $n" # n = 1 let z=z+3 let "z += 3" # Quotes permit the use of spaces in variable assignment. # The 'let' operator actually performs arithmetic evaluation, #+ rather than expansion. Examples of arithmetic expansion in scripts: Recess Time This bizarre little intermission gives the reader a chance to relax and maybe laugh a bit.

Fellow Linux user, greetings! You are reading something which will bring you luck and good fortune. Just e-mail a copy of this document to 10 of your friends. Before making the copies, send a 100-line Bash script to the first person on the list at the bottom of this letter. Then delete their name and add yours to the bottom of the list. Don't break the chain! Make the copies within 48 hours. Wilfred P. of Brooklyn failed to send out his ten copies and woke the next morning to find his job description changed to "COBOL programmer." Howard L. of Newport News sent out his ten copies and within a month had enough hardware to build a 100-node Beowulf cluster dedicated to playing Tuxracer. Amelia V. of Chicago laughed at this letter and broke the chain. Shortly thereafter, a fire broke out in her terminal and she now spends her days writing documentation for MS Windows. Don't break the chain! Send out your ten copies today!

Courtesy 'NIX "fortune cookies", with some alterations and many apologies Commands Mastering the commands on your Linux machine is an indispensable prelude to writing effective shell scripts. This section covers the following commands: . (See also source) ac adduser agetty agrep ar arch at autoload awk (See also Using awk for math operations) badblocks banner basename batch bc bg bind bison builtin bzgrep bzip2 cal caller cat cd chattr chfn chgrp chkconfig chmod chown chroot cksum clear clock cmp col colrm column comm command compress cp cpio cron crypt csplit cu cut date dc dd debugfs declare depmod df dialog diff diff3 diffstat dig dirname dirs disown dmesg doexec dos2unix du dump dumpe2fs e2fsck echo egrep enable enscript env eqn eval exec exit (Related topic: exit status) expand export expr factor false fdformat fdisk fg fgrep file find finger flex flock fmt fold free fsck ftp fuser getopt getopts gettext getty gnome-mount grep groff groupmod groups (Related topic: the $GROUPS variable) gs gzip halt hash hdparm head help hexdump host hostid hostname (Related topic: the $HOSTNAME variable) hwclock iconv id (Related topic: the $UID variable) ifconfig info infocmp init insmod install ip ipcalc iwconfig jobs join jot kill killall last lastcomm lastlog ldd less let lex lid ln locate lockfile logger logname logout logrotate look losetup lp ls lsdev lsmod lsof lspci lsusb ltrace lynx lzcat lzma m4 mail mailstats mailto make MAKEDEV man mcookie md5sum merge mesg mimencode mkbootdisk mkdir mke2fs mkfifo mkisofs mknod mkswap mktemp mmencode modinfo modprobe more mount msgfmt mv nc netconfig netstat newgrp nice nl nm nmap nohup nslookup objdump od passwd paste patch (Related topic: diff) pathchk pgrep pidof ping pkill popd pr printenv printf procinfo ps pstree ptx pushd pwd (Related topic: the $PWD variable) quota rcp rdev rdist read readelf readlink readonly reboot recode renice reset resize restore rev rlogin rm rmdir rmmod route rpm rpm2cpio rsh rsync runlevel run-parts rx rz sar scp script sdiff sed seq service set setquota setserial setterm sha1sum shar shopt shred shutdown size skill sleep slocate snice sort source sox split sq ssh stat strace strings strip stty su sudo sum suspend swapoff swapon sx sync sz tac tail tar tbl tcpdump tee telinit telnet Tex texexec time times tmpwatch top touch tput tr traceroute true tset tsort tty tune2fs type typeset ulimit umask umount uname unarc unarj uncompress unexpand uniq units unlzma unrar unset unsq unzip uptime usbmodules useradd userdel usermod users usleep uucp uudecode uuencode uux vacation vdir vmstat vrfy w wait wall watch wc wget whatis whereis which who whoami whois write xargs yacc yes zcat zdiff zdump zegrep zfgrep zgrep zip Internal Commands and Builtins builtin A builtin is a command contained within the Bash tool set, literally built in. This is either for performance reasons -- builtins execute faster than external commands, which usually require forking off a separate process -- or because a particular builtin needs direct access to the shell internals. When a command or the shell itself initiates (or spawns) a new subprocess to carry out a task, this is called forking. This new process is the child, and the process that forked it off is the parent. While the child process is doing its work, the parent process is still executing. Note that while a parent process gets the process ID of the child process, and can thus pass arguments to it, the reverse is not true. This can create problems that are subtle and hard to track down. A script that forks off multiple instances of itself &spawnscr; Generally, a Bash builtin does not fork a subprocess when it executes within a script. An external system command or filter in a script usually will fork a subprocess. A builtin may be a synonym to a system command of the same name, but Bash reimplements it internally. For example, the Bash echo command is not the same as /bin/echo, although their behavior is almost identical. #!/bin/bash echo "This line uses the \"echo\" builtin." /bin/echo "This line uses the /bin/echo system command." A keyword is a reserved word, token or operator. Keywords have a special meaning to the shell, and indeed are the building blocks of the shell's syntax. As examples, for, while, do, and ! are keywords. Similar to a builtin, a keyword is hard-coded into Bash, but unlike a builtin, a keyword is not in itself a command, but a subunit of a command construct. An exception to this is the time command, listed in the official Bash documentation as a keyword (reserved word). <anchor id="intio1">I/O echo echo command echo prints (to stdout) an expression or variable (see ). echo Hello echo $a An echo requires the option to print escaped characters. See . Normally, each echo command prints a terminal newline, but the option suppresses this. An echo can be used to feed a sequence of commands down a pipe. if echo "$VAR" | grep -q txt # if [[ $VAR = *txt* ]] then echo "$VAR contains the substring sequence \"txt\"" fi An echo, in combination with command substitution can set a variable. a=`echo "HELLO" | tr A-Z a-z` See also , , , and . Be aware that echo `command` deletes any linefeeds that the output of command generates. The $IFS (internal field separator) variable normally contains \n (linefeed) as one of its set of whitespace characters. Bash therefore splits the output of command at linefeeds into arguments to echo. Then echo outputs these arguments, separated by spaces. bash$ ls -l /usr/share/apps/kjezz/sounds -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1407 Nov 7 2000 reflect.au -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 362 Nov 7 2000 seconds.au bash$ echo `ls -l /usr/share/apps/kjezz/sounds` total 40 -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 716 Nov 7 2000 reflect.au -rw-r--r-- 1 root root ... So, how can we embed a linefeed within an echoed character string? # Embedding a linefeed? echo "Why doesn't this string \n split on two lines?" # Doesn't split. # Let's try something else. echo echo $"A line of text containing a linefeed." # Prints as two distinct lines (embedded linefeed). # But, is the "$" variable prefix really necessary? echo echo "This string splits on two lines." # No, the "$" is not needed. echo echo "---------------" echo echo -n $"Another line of text containing a linefeed." # Prints as two distinct lines (embedded linefeed). # Even the -n option fails to suppress the linefeed here. echo echo echo "---------------" echo echo # However, the following doesn't work as expected. # Why not? Hint: Assignment to a variable. string1=$"Yet another line of text containing a linefeed (maybe)." echo $string1 # Yet another line of text containing a linefeed (maybe). # ^ # Linefeed becomes a space. # Thanks, Steve Parker, for pointing this out. This command is a shell builtin, and not the same as /bin/echo, although its behavior is similar. bash$ type -a echo echo is a shell builtin echo is /bin/echo printf printf command printf The printf, formatted print, command is an enhanced echo. It is a limited variant of the C language printf() library function, and its syntax is somewhat different. printf format-string parameter This is the Bash builtin version of the /bin/printf or /usr/bin/printf command. See the printf manpage (of the system command) for in-depth coverage. Older versions of Bash may not support printf. <firstterm>printf</firstterm> in action &ex47; Formatting error messages is a useful application of printf E_BADDIR=85 var=nonexistent_directory error() { printf "$@" >&2 # Formats positional params passed, and sends them to stderr. echo exit $E_BADDIR } cd $var || error $"Can't cd to %s." "$var" # Thanks, S.C. See also . read read command read Reads the value of a variable from stdin, that is, interactively fetches input from the keyboard. The option lets read get array variables (see ). Variable assignment, using <firstterm>read</firstterm> &ex36; A read without an associated variable assigns its input to the dedicated variable $REPLY. What happens when <firstterm>read</firstterm> has no variable &readnovar; Normally, inputting a \ suppresses a newline during input to a read. The option causes an inputted \ to be interpreted literally. Multi-line input to <firstterm>read</firstterm> &readr; The read command has some interesting options that permit echoing a prompt and even reading keystrokes without hitting ENTER. # Read a keypress without hitting ENTER. read -s -n1 -p "Hit a key " keypress echo; echo "Keypress was "\"$keypress\""." # -s option means do not echo input. # -n N option means accept only N characters of input. # -p option means echo the following prompt before reading input. # Using these options is tricky, since they need to be in the correct order. The option to read also allows detection of the arrow keys and certain of the other unusual keys. Detecting the arrow keys &arrowdetect; The option to read will not detect the ENTER (newline) key. The option to read permits timed input (see and ). The read command may also read its variable value from a file redirected to stdin. If the file contains more than one line, only the first line is assigned to the variable. If read has more than one parameter, then each of these variables gets assigned a successive whitespace-delineated string. Caution! Using <firstterm>read</firstterm> with <link linkend="ioredirref">file redirection</link> &readredir; Piping output to a read, using echo to set variables will fail. Yet, piping the output of cat seems to work. cat file1 file2 | while read line do echo $line done However, as Bjön Eriksson shows: Problems reading from a pipe &readpipe; The gendiff script, usually found in /usr/bin on many Linux distros, pipes the output of find to a while read construct. find $1 $ -name "*$2" -o -name ".*$2" $ -print | while read f; do . . . It is possible to paste text into the input field of a read (but not multiple lines!). See . <anchor id="intfilesystem1">Filesystem cd cd command cd The familiar cd change directory command finds use in scripts where execution of a command requires being in a specified directory. (cd /source/directory && tar cf - . ) | (cd /dest/directory && tar xpvf -) [from the previously cited example by Alan Cox] The (physical) option to cd causes it to ignore symbolic links. cd - changes to $OLDPWD, the previous working directory. The cd command does not function as expected when presented with two forward slashes. bash$ cd // bash$ pwd // The output should, of course, be /. This is a problem both from the command line and in a script. pwd pwd command pwd $PWD variable $PWD directory working Print Working Directory. This gives the user's (or script's) current directory (see ). The effect is identical to reading the value of the builtin variable $PWD. pushd popd dirs pushd command pushd popd command popd dirs command dirs directory working bookmark This command set is a mechanism for bookmarking working directories, a means of moving back and forth through directories in an orderly manner. A pushdown stack is used to keep track of directory names. Options allow various manipulations of the directory stack. pushd dir-name pushes the path dir-name onto the directory stack and simultaneously changes the current working directory to dir-name popd removes (pops) the top directory path name off the directory stack and simultaneously changes the current working directory to that directory popped from the stack. dirs lists the contents of the directory stack (compare this with the $DIRSTACK variable). A successful pushd or popd will automatically invoke dirs. Scripts that require various changes to the current working directory without hard-coding the directory name changes can make good use of these commands. Note that the implicit $DIRSTACK array variable, accessible from within a script, holds the contents of the directory stack. Changing the current working directory &ex37; <anchor id="intvar1">Variables let let command let The let command carries out arithmetic operations on variables. In many cases, it functions as a less complex version of expr. Letting <firstterm>let</firstterm> do arithmetic. &ex46; eval eval command eval eval arg1 [arg2] ... [argN] Combines the arguments in an expression or list of expressions and evaluates them. Any variables contained within the expression are expanded. The result translates into a command. This can be useful for code generation from the command line or within a script. bash$ process=xterm bash$ show_process="eval ps ax | grep $process" bash$ $show_process 1867 tty1 S 0:02 xterm 2779 tty1 S 0:00 xterm 2886 pts/1 S 0:00 grep xterm Each invocation of eval forces a re-evaluation of its arguments. a='$b' b='$c' c=d echo $a # $b # First level. eval echo $a # $c # Second level. eval eval echo $a # d # Third level. # Thank you, E. Choroba. Showing the effect of <firstterm>eval</firstterm> &ex43; <firstterm>Echoing</firstterm> the <firstterm>command-line parameters</firstterm> &echoparams; Forcing a log-off &ex44; A version of <firstterm>rot13</firstterm> &rot14; Rory Winston contributed the following instance of how useful eval can be. Using <firstterm>eval</firstterm> to force variable substitution in a <firstterm>Perl</firstterm> script &evalex; The eval command occurs in the older version of indirect referencing. eval var=\$$var The eval command can be risky, and normally should be avoided when there exists a reasonable alternative. An eval $COMMANDS executes the contents of COMMANDS, which may contain such unpleasant surprises as rm -rf *. Running an eval on unfamiliar code written by persons unknown is living dangerously. set set command set The set command changes the value of internal script variables/options. One use for this is to toggle option flags which help determine the behavior of the script. Another application for it is to reset the positional parameters that a script sees as the result of a command (set `command`). The script can then parse the fields of the command output. Using <firstterm>set</firstterm> with positional parameters &ex34; More fun with positional parameters. Reversing the positional parameters &revposparams; Invoking set without any options or arguments simply lists all the environmental and other variables that have been initialized. bash$ set AUTHORCOPY=/home/bozo/posts BASH=/bin/bash BASH_VERSION=$'2.05.8(1)-release' ... XAUTHORITY=/home/bozo/.Xauthority _=/etc/bashrc variable22=abc variable23=xzy Using set with the option explicitly assigns the contents of a variable to the positional parameters. If no variable follows the it unsets the positional parameters. Reassigning the positional parameters &setpos; See also and . unset unset command unset The unset command deletes a shell variable, effectively setting it to null. Note that this command does not affect positional parameters. bash$ unset PATH bash$ echo $PATH bash$ <quote>Unsetting</quote> a variable &uns; export export command export The export To Export information is to make it available in a more general context. See also scope. command makes available variables to all child processes of the running script or shell. One important use of the export command is in startup files, to initialize and make accessible environmental variables to subsequent user processes. Unfortunately, there is no way to export variables back to the parent process, to the process that called or invoked the script or shell. Using <firstterm>export</firstterm> to pass a variable to an embedded <firstterm>awk</firstterm> script &coltotaler3; It is possible to initialize and export variables in the same operation, as in export var1=xxx. However, as Greg Keraunen points out, in certain situations this may have a different effect than setting a variable, then exporting it. bash$ export var=(a b); echo ${var[0]} (a b) bash$ var=(a b); export var; echo ${var[0]} a declare typeset declare command declare typeset command typeset The declare and typeset commands specify and/or restrict properties of variables. readonly readonly command readonly Same as declare -r, sets a variable as read-only, or, in effect, as a constant. Attempts to change the variable fail with an error message. This is the shell analog of the C language const type qualifier. getopts getopts command getopts $OPTIND variable $OPTIND $OPTARG variable $OPTARG This powerful tool parses command-line arguments passed to the script. This is the Bash analog of the getopt external command and the getopt library function familiar to C programmers. It permits passing and concatenating multiple options An option is an argument that acts as a flag, switching script behaviors on or off. The argument associated with a particular option indicates the behavior that the option (flag) switches on or off. and associated arguments to a script (for example scriptname -abc -e /usr/local). The getopts construct uses two implicit variables. $OPTIND is the argument pointer (OPTion INDex) and $OPTARG (OPTion ARGument) the (optional) argument attached to an option. A colon following the option name in the declaration tags that option as having an associated argument. A getopts construct usually comes packaged in a while loop, which processes the options and arguments one at a time, then increments the implicit $OPTIND variable to step to the next. The arguments passed from the command line to the script must be preceded by a minus (). It is the prefixed that lets getopts recognize command-line arguments as options. In fact, getopts will not process arguments without the prefixed , and will terminate option processing at the first argument encountered lacking them. The getopts template differs slightly from the standard while loop, in that it lacks condition brackets. The getopts construct is a highly functional replacement for the traditional getopt external command. while getopts ":abcde:fg" Option # Initial declaration. # a, b, c, d, e, f, and g are the options (flags) expected. # The : after option 'e' shows it will have an argument passed with it. do case $Option in a ) # Do something with variable 'a'. b ) # Do something with variable 'b'. ... e) # Do something with 'e', and also with $OPTARG, # which is the associated argument passed with option 'e'. ... g ) # Do something with variable 'g'. esac done shift $(($OPTIND - 1)) # Move argument pointer to next. # All this is not nearly as complicated as it looks <grin>. Using <firstterm>getopts</firstterm> to read the options/arguments passed to a script &ex33; <anchor id="intscrbeh1">Script Behavior source . (dot command) source command source . command . This command, when invoked from the command line, executes a script. Within a script, a source file-name loads the file file-name. Sourcing a file (dot-command) imports code into the script, appending to the script (same effect as the #include directive in a C program). The net result is the same as if the sourced lines of code were physically present in the body of the script. This is useful in situations when multiple scripts use a common data file or function library. <quote>Including</quote> a data file &ex38; File data-file for , above. Must be present in same directory. &ex38bis; If the sourced file is itself an executable script, then it will run, then return control to the script that called it. A sourced executable script may use a return for this purpose. Arguments may be (optionally) passed to the sourced file as positional parameters. source $filename $arg1 arg2 It is even possible for a script to source itself, though this does not seem to have any practical applications. A (useless) script that sources itself &selfsource; exit exit command exit Unconditionally terminates a script. Technically, an exit only terminates the process (or shell) in which it is running, not the parent process. The exit command may optionally take an integer argument, which is returned to the shell as the exit status of the script. It is good practice to end all but the simplest scripts with an exit 0, indicating a successful run. If a script terminates with an exit lacking an argument, the exit status of the script is the exit status of the last command executed in the script, not counting the exit. This is equivalent to an exit $?. An exit command may also be used to terminate a subshell. exec exec command exec This shell builtin replaces the current process with a specified command. Normally, when the shell encounters a command, it forks off a child process to actually execute the command. Using the exec builtin, the shell does not fork, and the command exec'ed replaces the shell. When used in a script, therefore, it forces an exit from the script when the exec'ed command terminates. Unless the exec is used to reassign file descriptors. Effects of <firstterm>exec</firstterm> &ex54; A script that <firstterm>exec's</firstterm> itself &selfexec; An exec also serves to reassign file descriptors. For example, exec <zzz-file replaces stdin with the file zzz-file. The option to find is not the same as the exec shell builtin. shopt shopt command shopt This command permits changing shell options on the fly (see and ). It often appears in the Bash startup files, but also has its uses in scripts. Needs version 2 or later of Bash. shopt -s cdspell # Allows minor misspelling of directory names with 'cd' cd /hpme # Oops! Mistyped '/home'. pwd # /home # The shell corrected the misspelling. caller caller command caller Putting a caller command inside a function echoes to stdout information about the caller of that function. #!/bin/bash function1 () { # Inside function1 (). caller 0 # Tell me about it. } function1 # Line 9 of script. # 9 main test.sh # ^ Line number that the function was called from. # ^^^^ Invoked from "main" part of script. # ^^^^^^^ Name of calling script. caller 0 # Has no effect because it's not inside a function. A caller command can also return caller information from a script sourced within another script. Analogous to a function, this is a subroutine call. You may find this command useful in debugging. <anchor id="intcommand1">Commands true true command true A command that returns a successful (zero) exit status, but does nothing else. bash$ true bash$ echo $? 0 # Endless loop while true # alias for ":" do operation-1 operation-2 ... operation-n # Need a way to break out of loop or script will hang. done false false command false A command that returns an unsuccessful exit status, but does nothing else. bash$ false bash$ echo $? 1 # Testing "false" if false then echo "false evaluates \"true\"" else echo "false evaluates \"false\"" fi # false evaluates "false" # Looping while "false" (null loop) while false do # The following code will not execute. operation-1 operation-2 ... operation-n # Nothing happens! done type [cmd] type command type variable which Similar to the which external command, type cmd identifies cmd. Unlike which, type is a Bash builtin. The useful option to type identifies keywords and builtins, and also locates system commands with identical names. bash$ type '[' [ is a shell builtin bash$ type -a '[' [ is a shell builtin [ is /usr/bin/[ bash$ type type type is a shell builtin hash [cmds] hash command hash $PATH variable $PATH Record the path name of specified commands -- in the shell hash table Hashing is a method of creating lookup keys for data stored in a table. The data items themselves are scrambled to create keys, using one of a number of simple mathematical algorithms (methods, or recipes). An advantage of hashing is that it is fast. A disadvantage is that collisions -- where a single key maps to more than one data item -- are possible. For examples of hashing see and . -- so the shell or script will not need to search the $PATH on subsequent calls to those commands. When hash is called with no arguments, it simply lists the commands that have been hashed. The option resets the hash table. bind bind bind key bindings The bind builtin displays or modifies readline The readline library is what Bash uses for reading input in an interactive shell. key bindings. help help command Gets a short usage summary of a shell builtin. This is the counterpart to whatis, but for builtins. bash$ help exit exit: exit [n] Exit the shell with a status of N. If N is omitted, the exit status is that of the last command executed. Job Control Commands Certain of the following job control commands take a job identifier as an argument. See the table at end of the chapter. jobs jobs command jobs ps command ps Lists the jobs running in the background, giving the job number. Not as useful as ps. It is all too easy to confuse jobs and processes. Certain builtins, such as kill, disown, and wait accept either a job number or a process number as an argument. The fg, bg and jobs commands accept only a job number. bash$ sleep 100 & [1] 1384 bash $ jobs [1]+ Running sleep 100 & 1 is the job number (jobs are maintained by the current shell). 1384 is the PID or process ID number (processes are maintained by the system). To kill this job/process, either a kill %1 or a kill 1384 works. Thanks, S.C. disown disown command disown Remove job(s) from the shell's table of active jobs. fg bg fg command foreground background command bg The fg command switches a job running in the background into the foreground. The bg command restarts a suspended job, and runs it in the background. If no job number is specified, then the fg or bg command acts upon the currently running job. wait wait command wait Suspend script execution until all jobs running in background have terminated, or until the job number or process ID specified as an option terminates. Returns the exit status of waited-for command. You may use the wait command to prevent a script from exiting before a background job finishes executing (this would create a dreaded orphan process). Waiting for a process to finish before proceeding &ex39; Optionally, wait can take a job identifier as an argument, for example, wait%1 or wait $PPID. See the job id table. Within a script, running a command in the background with an ampersand (&) may cause the script to hang until ENTER is hit. This seems to occur with commands that write to stdout. It can be a major annoyance. #!/bin/bash # test.sh ls -l & echo "Done." bash$ ./test.sh Done. [bozo@localhost test-scripts]$ total 1 -rwxr-xr-x 1 bozo bozo 34 Oct 11 15:09 test.sh _

As Walter Brameld IV explains it: As far as I can tell, such scripts don't actually hang. It just seems that they do because the background command writes text to the console after the prompt. The user gets the impression that the prompt was never displayed. Here's the sequence of events: 1. Script launches background command. 2. Script exits. 3. Shell displays the prompt. 4. Background command continues running and writing text to the console. 5. Background command finishes. 6. User doesn't see a prompt at the bottom of the output, thinks script is hanging.

Placing a wait after the background command seems to remedy this. #!/bin/bash # test.sh ls -l & echo "Done." wait bash$ ./test.sh Done. [bozo@localhost test-scripts]$ total 1 -rwxr-xr-x 1 bozo bozo 34 Oct 11 15:09 test.sh Redirecting the output of the command to a file or even to /dev/null also takes care of this problem. suspend suspend command suspend This has a similar effect to ControlZ, but it suspends the shell (the shell's parent process should resume it at an appropriate time). logout logout command log out Exit a login shell, optionally specifying an exit status. times times command times Gives statistics on the system time elapsed when executing commands, in the following form: 0m0.020s 0m0.020s This capability is of relatively limited value, since it is not common to profile and benchmark shell scripts. kill kill command kill Forcibly terminate a process by sending it an appropriate terminate signal (see ). A script that kills itself &selfdestruct; kill -l lists all the signals (as does the file /usr/include/asm/signal.h). A kill -9 is a sure kill, which will usually terminate a process that stubbornly refuses to die with a plain kill. Sometimes, a kill -15 works. A zombie process, that is, a child process that has terminated, but that the parent process has not (yet) killed, cannot be killed by a logged-on user -- you can't kill something that is already dead -- but init will generally clean it up sooner or later. killall killall command kill The killall command kills a running process by name, rather than by process ID. If there are multiple instances of a particular command running, then doing a killall on that command will terminate them all. This refers to the killall command in /usr/bin, not the killall script in /etc/rc.d/init.d. command command command command The command directive disables aliases and functions for the command immediately following it. bash$ command ls This is one of three shell directives that effect script command processing. The others are builtin and enable. builtin builtin command builtin Invoking builtin BUILTIN_COMMAND runs the command BUILTIN_COMMAND as a shell builtin, temporarily disabling both functions and external system commands with the same name. enable enable command enable This either enables or disables a shell builtin command. As an example, enable -n kill disables the shell builtin kill, so that when Bash subsequently encounters kill, it invokes the external command /bin/kill. The option to enable lists all the shell builtins, indicating whether or not they are enabled. The option lets enable load a builtin as a shared library (DLL) module from a properly compiled object file. The C source for a number of loadable builtins is typically found in the /usr/share/doc/bash-?.??/functions directory. Note that the option to enable is not portable to all systems. . autoload autoload command autoloader This is a port to Bash of the ksh autoloader. With autoload in place, a function with an autoload declaration will load from an external file at its first invocation. The same effect as autoload can be achieved with typeset -fu. This saves system resources. Note that autoload is not a part of the core Bash installation. It needs to be loaded in with enable -f (see above). Job identifiers Notation Meaning Job number [N] Invocation (command line) of job begins with string S Invocation (command line) of job contains within it string S current job (last job stopped in foreground or started in background) current job (last job stopped in foreground or started in background) Last job Last background process

External Filters, Programs and Commands Standard UNIX commands make shell scripts more versatile. The power of scripts comes from coupling system commands and shell directives with simple programming constructs. Basic Commands <anchor id="basiccommands1">The first commands a novice learns ls ls command ls The basic file list command. It is all too easy to underestimate the power of this humble command. For example, using the , recursive option, ls provides a tree-like listing of a directory structure. Other useful options are , sort listing by file size, , sort by file modification time, , show escape characters, and , show file inodes (see ). The ls command returns a non-zero exit status when attempting to list a non-existent file. bash$ ls abc ls: abc: No such file or directory bash$ echo $? 2 Using <firstterm>ls</firstterm> to create a table of contents for burning a <abbrev>CDR</abbrev> disk &ex40; cat tac cat command cat tac command tac cat, an acronym for concatenate, lists a file to stdout. When combined with redirection (> or >>), it is commonly used to concatenate files. # Uses of 'cat' cat filename # Lists the file. cat file.1 file.2 file.3 > file.123 # Combines three files into one. The option to cat inserts consecutive numbers before all lines of the target file(s). The option numbers only the non-blank lines. The option echoes nonprintable characters, using ^ notation. The option squeezes multiple consecutive blank lines into a single blank line. See also and . In a pipe, it may be more efficient to redirect the stdin to a file, rather than to cat the file. cat filename | tr a-z A-Z tr a-z A-Z < filename # Same effect, but starts one less process, #+ and also dispenses with the pipe. tac, is the inverse of cat, listing a file backwards from its end. rev rev command rev reverses each line of a file, and outputs to stdout. This does not have the same effect as tac, as it preserves the order of the lines, but flips each one around (mirror image). bash$ cat file1.txt This is line 1. This is line 2. bash$ tac file1.txt This is line 2. This is line 1. bash$ rev file1.txt .1 enil si sihT .2 enil si sihT cp cp command cp This is the file copy command. cp file1 file2 copies file1 to file2, overwriting file2 if it already exists (see ). Particularly useful are the archive flag (for copying an entire directory tree), the update flag (which prevents overwriting identically-named newer files), and the and recursive flags. cp -u source_dir/* dest_dir # "Synchronize" dest_dir to source_dir #+ by copying over all newer and not previously existing files. mv This is the file move command. It is equivalent to a combination of cp and rm. It may be used to move multiple files to a directory, or even to rename a directory. For some examples of using mv in a script, see and . When used in a non-interactive script, mv takes the (force) option to bypass user input. When a directory is moved to a preexisting directory, it becomes a subdirectory of the destination directory. bash$ mv source_directory target_directory bash$ ls -lF target_directory total 1 drwxrwxr-x 2 bozo bozo 1024 May 28 19:20 source_directory/ rm rm command rm Delete (remove) a file or files. The option forces removal of even readonly files, and is useful for bypassing user input in a script. The rm command will, by itself, fail to remove filenames beginning with a dash. Why? Because rm sees a dash-prefixed filename as an option. bash$ rm -badname rm: invalid option -- b Try `rm --help' for more information. One clever workaround is to precede the filename with a -- (the end-of-options flag). bash$ rm -- -badname Another method to is to preface the filename to be removed with a dot-slash . bash$ rm ./-badname When used with the recursive flag , this command removes files all the way down the directory tree from the current directory. A careless rm -rf * can wipe out a big chunk of a directory structure. rmdir rmdir command rmdir Remove directory. The directory must be empty of all files -- including invisible dotfiles Dotfiles are files whose names begin with a dot, such as ~/.Xdefaults. Such filenames do not appear in a normal ls listing (although an ls -a will show them), and they cannot be deleted by an accidental rm -rf *. Dotfiles are generally used as setup and configuration files in a user's home directory. -- for this command to succeed. mkdir mkdir command mkdir Make directory, creates a new directory. For example, mkdir -p project/programs/December creates the named directory. The -p option automatically creates any necessary parent directories. chmod chmod command chmod Changes the attributes of an existing file or directory (see ). chmod +x filename # Makes "filename" executable for all users. chmod u+s filename # Sets "suid" bit on "filename" permissions. # An ordinary user may execute "filename" with same privileges as the file's owner. # (This does not apply to shell scripts.) chmod 644 filename # Makes "filename" readable/writable to owner, readable to others # (octal mode). chmod 444 filename # Makes "filename" read-only for all. # Modifying the file (for example, with a text editor) #+ not allowed for a user who does not own the file (except for root), #+ and even the file owner must force a file-save #+ if she modifies the file. # Same restrictions apply for deleting the file. chmod 1777 directory-name # Gives everyone read, write, and execute permission in directory, #+ however also sets the "sticky bit". # This means that only the owner of the directory, #+ owner of the file, and, of course, root #+ can delete any particular file in that directory. chmod 111 directory-name # Gives everyone execute-only permission in a directory. # This means that you can execute and READ the files in that directory #+ (execute permission necessarily includes read permission #+ because you can't execute a file without being able to read it). # But you can't list the files or search for them with the "find" command. # These restrictions do not apply to root. chmod 000 directory-name # No permissions at all for that directory. # Can't read, write, or execute files in it. # Can't even list files in it or "cd" to it. # But, you can rename (mv) the directory #+ or delete it (rmdir) if it is empty. # You can even symlink to files in the directory, #+ but you can't read, write, or execute the symlinks. # These restrictions do not apply to root. chattr chattr command chattr Change file attributes. This is analogous to chmod above, but with different options and a different invocation syntax, and it works only on ext2/ext3 filesystems. One particularly interesting chattr option is . A chattr +i filename marks the file as immutable. The file cannot be modified, linked to, or deleted, not even by root. This file attribute can be set or removed only by root. In a similar fashion, the option marks the file as append only. root# chattr +i file1.txt root# rm file1.txt rm: remove write-protected regular file `file1.txt'? y rm: cannot remove `file1.txt': Operation not permitted If a file has the (secure) attribute set, then when it is deleted its block is zeroed out on the disk. If a file has the (undelete) attribute set, then when it is deleted, its contents can still be retrieved (undeleted). If a file has the (compress) attribute set, then it will automatically be compressed on writes to disk, and uncompressed on reads. The file attributes set with chattr do not show in a file listing (ls -l). ln Creates links to pre-existings files. A link is a reference to a file, an alternate name for it. The ln command permits referencing the linked file by more than one name and is a superior alternative to aliasing (see ). The ln creates only a reference, a pointer to the file only a few bytes in size. The ln command is most often used with the , symbolic or soft link flag. Advantages of using the flag are that it permits linking across file systems or to directories. The syntax of the command is a bit tricky. For example: ln -s oldfile newfile links the previously existing oldfile to the newly created link, newfile. If a file named newfile has previously existed, an error message will result. Which type of link to use? As John Macdonald explains it: Both of these [types of links] provide a certain measure of dual reference -- if you edit the contents of the file using any name, your changes will affect both the original name and either a hard or soft new name. The differences between them occurs when you work at a higher level. The advantage of a hard link is that the new name is totally independent of the old name -- if you remove or rename the old name, that does not affect the hard link, which continues to point to the data while it would leave a soft link hanging pointing to the old name which is no longer there. The advantage of a soft link is that it can refer to a different file system (since it is just a reference to a file name, not to actual data). And, unlike a hard link, a symbolic link can refer to a directory. Links give the ability to invoke a script (or any other type of executable) with multiple names, and having that script behave according to how it was invoked. Hello or Good-bye &hellol; man info man command man info command info These commands access the manual and information pages on system commands and installed utilities. When available, the info pages usually contain more detailed descriptions than do the man pages. There have been various attempts at automating the writing of man pages. For a script that makes a tentative first step in that direction, see . Complex Commands <anchor id="cclisting1">Commands for more advanced users find find command find {} special character {} \; escaped character \; -exec COMMAND \; Carries out COMMAND on each file that find matches. The command sequence terminates with ; (the ; is escaped to make certain the shell passes it to find literally, without interpreting it as a special character). bash$ find ~/ -name '*.txt' /home/bozo/.kde/share/apps/karm/karmdata.txt /home/bozo/misc/irmeyc.txt /home/bozo/test-scripts/1.txt If COMMAND contains {}, then find substitutes the full path name of the selected file for {}. find ~/ -name 'core*' -exec rm {} \; # Removes all core dump files from user's home directory. find /home/bozo/projects -mtime 1 # Lists all files in /home/bozo/projects directory tree #+ that were modified within the last day. # # mtime = last modification time of the target file # ctime = last status change time (via 'chmod' or otherwise) # atime = last access time DIR=/home/bozo/junk_files find "$DIR" -type f -atime +5 -exec rm {} \; # ^^ # Curly brackets are placeholder for the path name output by "find." # # Deletes all files in "/home/bozo/junk_files" #+ that have not been accessed in at least 5 days. # # "-type filetype", where # f = regular file # d = directory # l = symbolic link, etc. # (The 'find' manpage and info page have complete listings.) find /etc -exec grep '[0-9][0-9]*[.][0-9][0-9]*[.][0-9][0-9]*[.][0-9][0-9]*' {} \; # Finds all IP addresses (xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx) in /etc directory files. # There a few extraneous hits. Can they be filtered out? # Possibly by: find /etc -type f -exec cat '{}' \; | tr -c '.[:digit:]' '\n' \ | grep '^[^.][^.]*\.[^.][^.]*\.[^.][^.]*\.[^.][^.]*$' # # [:digit:] is one of the character classes #+ introduced with the POSIX 1003.2 standard. # Thanks, Stéphane Chazelas. The option to find should not be confused with the exec shell builtin. <firstterm>Badname</firstterm>, eliminate file names in current directory containing bad characters and <link linkend="whitespaceref">whitespace</link>. &ex57; Deleting a file by its <firstterm>inode</firstterm> number &idelete; The find command also works without the option. #!/bin/bash # Find suid root files. # A strange suid file might indicate a security hole, #+ or even a system intrusion. directory="/usr/sbin" # Might also try /sbin, /bin, /usr/bin, /usr/local/bin, etc. permissions="+4000" # suid root (dangerous!) for file in $( find "$directory" -perm "$permissions" ) do ls -ltF --author "$file" done See , , and for scripts using find. Its manpage provides more detail on this complex and powerful command. xargs xargs command xargs A filter for feeding arguments to a command, and also a tool for assembling the commands themselves. It breaks a data stream into small enough chunks for filters and commands to process. Consider it as a powerful replacement for backquotes. In situations where command substitution fails with a too many arguments error, substituting xargs often works. And even when xargs is not strictly necessary, it can speed up execution of a command involving batch-processing of multiple files. Normally, xargs reads from stdin or from a pipe, but it can also be given the output of a file. The default command for xargs is echo. This means that input piped to xargs may have linefeeds and other whitespace characters stripped out. bash$ ls -l total 0 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Jan 29 23:58 file1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Jan 29 23:58 file2 bash$ ls -l | xargs total 0 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Jan 29 23:58 file1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Jan... bash$ find ~/mail -type f | xargs grep "Linux" ./misc:User-Agent: slrn/0.9.8.1 (Linux) ./sent-mail-jul-2005: hosted by the Linux Documentation Project. ./sent-mail-jul-2005: (Linux Documentation Project Site, rtf version) ./sent-mail-jul-2005: Subject: Criticism of Bozo's Windows/Linux article ./sent-mail-jul-2005: while mentioning that the Linux ext2/ext3 filesystem . . . ls | xargs -p -l gzip gzips every file in current directory, one at a time, prompting before each operation. Note that xargs processes the arguments passed to it sequentially, one at a time. bash$ find /usr/bin | xargs file /usr/bin: directory /usr/bin/foomatic-ppd-options: perl script text executable . . . An interesting xargs option is , which limits to NN the number of arguments passed. ls | xargs -n 8 echo lists the files in the current directory in 8 columns. Another useful option is , in combination with find -print0 or grep -lZ. This allows handling arguments containing whitespace or quotes. find / -type f -print0 | xargs -0 grep -liwZ GUI | xargs -0 rm -f grep -rliwZ GUI / | xargs -0 rm -f Either of the above will remove any file containing GUI. (Thanks, S.C.) Or: cat /proc/"$pid"/"$OPTION" | xargs -0 echo # Formats output: ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ # From Han Holl's fixup of "get-commandline.sh" #+ script in "/dev and /proc" chapter. Logfile: Using <firstterm>xargs</firstterm> to monitor system log &ex41; As in find, a curly bracket pair serves as a placeholder for replacement text. Copying files in current directory to another &ex42; Killing processes by name &killbyname; Word frequency analysis using <firstterm>xargs</firstterm> &wf2; expr expr command expr All-purpose expression evaluator: Concatenates and evaluates the arguments according to the operation given (arguments must be separated by spaces). Operations may be arithmetic, comparison, string, or logical. expr 3 + 5 returns 8 expr 5 % 3 returns 2 expr 1 / 0 returns the error message, expr: division by zero Illegal arithmetic operations not allowed. expr 5 \* 3 returns 15 The multiplication operator must be escaped when used in an arithmetic expression with expr. y=`expr $y + 1` Increment a variable, with the same effect as let y=y+1 and y=$(($y+1)). This is an example of arithmetic expansion. z=`expr substr $string $position $length` Extract substring of $length characters, starting at $position. Using <firstterm>expr</firstterm> &ex45; The : (null) operator can substitute for match. For example, b=`expr $a : [0-9]*` is the exact equivalent of b=`expr match $a [0-9]*` in the above listing. &ex45a; The above script illustrates how expr uses the escaped parentheses -- $ ... $ -- grouping operator in tandem with regular expression parsing to match a substring. Here is a another example, this time from real life. # Strip the whitespace from the beginning and end. LRFDATE=`expr "$LRFDATE" : '[[:space:]]*$.*$[[:space:]]*$'` # From Peter Knowles' "booklistgen.sh" script #+ for converting files to Sony Librie/PRS-50X format. # (http://booklistgensh.peterknowles.com) Perl, sed, and awk have far superior string parsing facilities. A short sed or awk subroutine within a script (see ) is an attractive alternative to expr. See for more on using expr in string operations. Time / Date Commands <anchor id="tdlisting1">Time/date and timing date date command date Simply invoked, date prints the date and time to stdout. Where this command gets interesting is in its formatting and parsing options. Using <firstterm>date</firstterm> &ex51; The option gives the UTC (Universal Coordinated Time). bash$ date Fri Mar 29 21:07:39 MST 2002 bash$ date -u Sat Mar 30 04:07:42 UTC 2002 This option facilitates calculating the time between different dates. <firstterm>Date</firstterm> calculations &datecalc; The date command has quite a number of output options. For example gives the nanosecond portion of the current time. One interesting use for this is to generate random integers. date +%N | sed -e 's/000$//' -e 's/^0//' ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ # Strip off leading and trailing zeroes, if present. # Length of generated integer depends on #+ how many zeroes stripped off. # 115281032 # 63408725 # 394504284 There are many more options (try man date). date +%j # Echoes day of the year (days elapsed since January 1). date +%k%M # Echoes hour and minute in 24-hour format, as a single digit string. # The 'TZ' parameter permits overriding the default time zone. date # Mon Mar 28 21:42:16 MST 2005 TZ=EST date # Mon Mar 28 23:42:16 EST 2005 # Thanks, Frank Kannemann and Pete Sjoberg, for the tip. SixDaysAgo=$(date --date='6 days ago') OneMonthAgo=$(date --date='1 month ago') # Four weeks back (not a month!) OneYearAgo=$(date --date='1 year ago') See also and . zdump zdump command time zone dump Time zone dump: echoes the time in a specified time zone. bash$ zdump EST EST Tue Sep 18 22:09:22 2001 EST time time command time Outputs verbose timing statistics for executing a command. time ls -l / gives something like this: real 0m0.067s user 0m0.004s sys 0m0.005s See also the very similar times command in the previous section. As of version 2.0 of Bash, time became a shell reserved word, with slightly altered behavior in a pipeline. touch touch command touch Utility for updating access/modification times of a file to current system time or other specified time, but also useful for creating a new file. The command touch zzz will create a new file of zero length, named zzz, assuming that zzz did not previously exist. Time-stamping empty files in this way is useful for storing date information, for example in keeping track of modification times on a project. The touch command is equivalent to : >> newfile or >> newfile (for ordinary files). Before doing a cp -u (copy/update), use touch to update the time stamp of files you don't wish overwritten. As an example, if the directory /home/bozo/tax_audit contains the files spreadsheet-051606.data, spreadsheet-051706.data, and spreadsheet-051806.data, then doing a touch spreadsheet*.data will protect these files from being overwritten by files with the same names during a cp -u /home/bozo/financial_info/spreadsheet*data /home/bozo/tax_audit. at at command at cron command cron The at job control command executes a given set of commands at a specified time. Superficially, it resembles cron, however, at is chiefly useful for one-time execution of a command set. at 2pm January 15 prompts for a set of commands to execute at that time. These commands should be shell-script compatible, since, for all practical purposes, the user is typing in an executable shell script a line at a time. Input terminates with a Ctl-D. Using either the option or input redirection (<), at reads a command list from a file. This file is an executable shell script, though it should, of course, be non-interactive. Particularly clever is including the run-parts command in the file to execute a different set of scripts. bash$ at 2:30 am Friday < at-jobs.list job 2 at 2000-10-27 02:30 batch batch command batch at command at The batch job control command is similar to at, but it runs a command list when the system load drops below .8. Like at, it can read commands from a file with the option. The concept of batch processing dates back to the era of mainframe computers. It means running a set of commands without user intervention. cal cal command cal Prints a neatly formatted monthly calendar to stdout. Will do current year or a large range of past and future years. sleep sleep command sleep This is the shell equivalent of a wait loop. It pauses for a specified number of seconds, doing nothing. It can be useful for timing or in processes running in the background, checking for a specific event every so often (polling), as in . sleep 3 # Pauses 3 seconds. The sleep command defaults to seconds, but minute, hours, or days may also be specified. sleep 3 h # Pauses 3 hours! The watch command may be a better choice than sleep for running commands at timed intervals. usleep usleep command usleep Microsleep (the u may be read as the Greek mu, or micro- prefix). This is the same as sleep, above, but sleeps in microsecond intervals. It can be used for fine-grained timing, or for polling an ongoing process at very frequent intervals. usleep 30 # Pauses 30 microseconds. This command is part of the Red Hat initscripts / rc-scripts package. The usleep command does not provide particularly accurate timing, and is therefore unsuitable for critical timing loops. hwclock clock hwclock command hwclock clock command clock The hwclock command accesses or adjusts the machine's hardware clock. Some options require root privileges. The /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit startup file uses hwclock to set the system time from the hardware clock at bootup. The clock command is a synonym for hwclock. Text Processing Commands <anchor id="tpcommandlisting1">Commands affecting text and text files sort sort command sort File sort utility, often used as a filter in a pipe. This command sorts a text stream or file forwards or backwards, or according to various keys or character positions. Using the option, it merges presorted input files. The info page lists its many capabilities and options. See , , and . tsort tsort command topological sort Topological sort, reading in pairs of whitespace-separated strings and sorting according to input patterns. The original purpose of tsort was to sort a list of dependencies for an obsolete version of the ld linker in an ancient version of UNIX. The results of a tsort will usually differ markedly from those of the standard sort command, above. uniq uniq command uniq This filter removes duplicate lines from a sorted file. It is often seen in a pipe coupled with sort. cat list-1 list-2 list-3 | sort | uniq > final.list # Concatenates the list files, # sorts them, # removes duplicate lines, # and finally writes the result to an output file. The useful option prefixes each line of the input file with its number of occurrences. bash$ cat testfile This line occurs only once. This line occurs twice. This line occurs twice. This line occurs three times. This line occurs three times. This line occurs three times. bash$ uniq -c testfile 1 This line occurs only once. 2 This line occurs twice. 3 This line occurs three times. bash$ sort testfile | uniq -c | sort -nr 3 This line occurs three times. 2 This line occurs twice. 1 This line occurs only once. The sort INPUTFILE | uniq -c | sort -nr command string produces a frequency of occurrence listing on the INPUTFILE file (the options to sort cause a reverse numerical sort). This template finds use in analysis of log files and dictionary lists, and wherever the lexical structure of a document needs to be examined. Word Frequency Analysis &wf; bash$ cat testfile This line occurs only once. This line occurs twice. This line occurs twice. This line occurs three times. This line occurs three times. This line occurs three times. bash$ ./wf.sh testfile 6 this 6 occurs 6 line 3 times 3 three 2 twice 1 only 1 once expand unexpand expand command expand unexpand command unexpand The expand filter converts tabs to spaces. It is often used in a pipe. The unexpand filter converts spaces to tabs. This reverses the effect of expand. cut cut command cut awk command awk A tool for extracting fields from files. It is similar to the print $N command set in awk, but more limited. It may be simpler to use cut in a script than awk. Particularly important are the (delimiter) and (field specifier) options. Using cut to obtain a listing of the mounted filesystems: cut -d ' ' -f1,2 /etc/mtab Using cut to list the OS and kernel version: uname -a | cut -d" " -f1,3,11,12 Using cut to extract message headers from an e-mail folder: bash$ grep '^Subject:' read-messages | cut -c10-80 Re: Linux suitable for mission-critical apps? MAKE MILLIONS WORKING AT HOME!!! Spam complaint Re: Spam complaint Using cut to parse a file: # List all the users in /etc/passwd. FILENAME=/etc/passwd for user in $(cut -d: -f1 $FILENAME) do echo $user done # Thanks, Oleg Philon for suggesting this. cut -d ' ' -f2,3 filename is equivalent to awk -F'[ ]' '{ print $2, $3 }' filename It is even possible to specify a linefeed as a delimiter. The trick is to actually embed a linefeed (RETURN) in the command sequence. bash$ cut -d' ' -f3,7,19 testfile This is line 3 of testfile. This is line 7 of testfile. This is line 19 of testfile. Thank you, Jaka Kranjc, for pointing this out. See also . paste paste command paste cut command cut Tool for merging together different files into a single, multi-column file. In combination with cut, useful for creating system log files. join join command join Consider this a special-purpose cousin of paste. This powerful utility allows merging two files in a meaningful fashion, which essentially creates a simple version of a relational database. The join command operates on exactly two files, but pastes together only those lines with a common tagged field (usually a numerical label), and writes the result to stdout. The files to be joined should be sorted according to the tagged field for the matchups to work properly. File: 1.data 100 Shoes 200 Laces 300 Socks File: 2.data 100 $40.00 200 $1.00 300 $2.00 bash$ join 1.data 2.data File: 1.data 2.data 100 Shoes $40.00 200 Laces $1.00 300 Socks $2.00 The tagged field appears only once in the output. head head command head lists the beginning of a file to stdout. The default is 10 lines, but a different number can be specified. The command has a number of interesting options. Which files are scripts? &scriptdetector; Generating 10-digit random numbers &rnd; See also . tail tail command tail lists the (tail) end of a file to stdout. The default is 10 lines, but this can be changed with the option. Commonly used to keep track of changes to a system logfile, using the option, which outputs lines appended to the file. Using <firstterm>tail</firstterm> to monitor the system log &ex12; To list a specific line of a text file, pipe the output of head to tail -n 1. For example head -n 8 database.txt | tail -n 1 lists the 8th line of the file database.txt. To set a variable to a given block of a text file: var=$(head -n $m $filename | tail -n $n) # filename = name of file # m = from beginning of file, number of lines to end of block # n = number of lines to set variable to (trim from end of block) Newer implementations of tail deprecate the older tail -$LINES filename usage. The standard tail -n $LINES filename is correct. See also , and . grep grep command grep A multi-purpose file search tool that uses Regular Expressions. It was originally a command/filter in the venerable ed line editor: g/re/p -- global - regular expression - print. grep pattern file Search the target file(s) for occurrences of pattern, where pattern may be literal text or a Regular Expression. bash$ grep '[rst]ystem.$' osinfo.txt The GPL governs the distribution of the Linux operating system. If no target file(s) specified, grep works as a filter on stdout, as in a pipe. bash$ ps ax | grep clock 765 tty1 S 0:00 xclock 901 pts/1 S 0:00 grep clock The option causes a case-insensitive search. The option matches only whole words. The option lists only the files in which matches were found, but not the matching lines. The (recursive) option searches files in the current working directory and all subdirectories below it. The option lists the matching lines, together with line numbers. bash$ grep -n Linux osinfo.txt 2:This is a file containing information about Linux. 6:The GPL governs the distribution of the Linux operating system. The (or ) option filters out matches. grep pattern1 *.txt | grep -v pattern2 # Matches all lines in "*.txt" files containing "pattern1", # but ***not*** "pattern2". The () option gives a numerical count of matches, rather than actually listing the matches. grep -c txt *.sgml # (number of occurrences of "txt" in "*.sgml" files) # grep -cz . # ^ dot # means count (-c) zero-separated (-z) items matching "." # that is, non-empty ones (containing at least 1 character). # printf 'a b\nc d\n\n\n\n\n\000\n\000e\000\000\nf' | grep -cz . # 3 printf 'a b\nc d\n\n\n\n\n\000\n\000e\000\000\nf' | grep -cz '$' # 5 printf 'a b\nc d\n\n\n\n\n\000\n\000e\000\000\nf' | grep -cz '^' # 5 # printf 'a b\nc d\n\n\n\n\n\000\n\000e\000\000\nf' | grep -c '$' # 9 # By default, newline chars (\n) separate items to match. # Note that the -z option is GNU "grep" specific. # Thanks, S.C. The (or ) option marks the matching string in color (on the console or in an xterm window). Since grep prints out each entire line containing the matching pattern, this lets you see exactly what is being matched. See also the option, which shows only the matching portion of the line(s). Printing out the <firstterm>From</firstterm> lines in stored e-mail messages &fromsh; When invoked with more than one target file given, grep specifies which file contains matches. bash$ grep Linux osinfo.txt misc.txt osinfo.txt:This is a file containing information about Linux. osinfo.txt:The GPL governs the distribution of the Linux operating system. misc.txt:The Linux operating system is steadily gaining in popularity. To force grep to show the filename when searching only one target file, simply give /dev/null as the second file. bash$ grep Linux osinfo.txt /dev/null osinfo.txt:This is a file containing information about Linux. osinfo.txt:The GPL governs the distribution of the Linux operating system. If there is a successful match, grep returns an exit status of 0, which makes it useful in a condition test in a script, especially in combination with the option to suppress output. SUCCESS=0 # if grep lookup succeeds word=Linux filename=data.file grep -q "$word" "$filename" # The "-q" option #+ causes nothing to echo to stdout. if [ $? -eq $SUCCESS ] # if grep -q "$word" "$filename" can replace lines 5 - 7. then echo "$word found in $filename" else echo "$word not found in $filename" fi demonstrates how to use grep to search for a word pattern in a system logfile. Emulating <firstterm>grep</firstterm> in a script &grp; How can grep search for two (or more) separate patterns? What if you want grep to display all lines in a file or files that contain both pattern1 and pattern2? One method is to pipe the result of grep pattern1 to grep pattern2. For example, given the following file: # Filename: tstfile This is a sample file. This is an ordinary text file. This file does not contain any unusual text. This file is not unusual. Here is some text. Now, let's search this file for lines containing both file and text . . . bash$ grep file tstfile # Filename: tstfile This is a sample file. This is an ordinary text file. This file does not contain any unusual text. This file is not unusual. bash$ grep file tstfile | grep text This is an ordinary text file. This file does not contain any unusual text. Now, for an interesting recreational use of grep . . . Crossword puzzle solver &cwsolver; egrep -- extended grep -- is the same as grep -E. This uses a somewhat different, extended set of Regular Expressions, which can make the search a bit more flexible. It also allows the boolean | (or) operator. bash $ egrep 'matches|Matches' file.txt Line 1 matches. Line 3 Matches. Line 4 contains matches, but also Matches fgrep -- fast grep -- is the same as grep -F. It does a literal string search (no Regular Expressions), which generally speeds things up a bit. On some Linux distros, egrep and fgrep are symbolic links to, or aliases for grep, but invoked with the and options, respectively. Looking up definitions in <citetitle pubwork="book">Webster's 1913 Dictionary</citetitle> &dictlookup; See also for an example of speedy fgrep lookup on a large text file. agrep (approximate grep) extends the capabilities of grep to approximate matching. The search string may differ by a specified number of characters from the resulting matches. This utility is not part of the core Linux distribution. To search compressed files, use zgrep, zegrep, or zfgrep. These also work on non-compressed files, though slower than plain grep, egrep, fgrep. They are handy for searching through a mixed set of files, some compressed, some not. To search bzipped files, use bzgrep. look look command look The command look works like grep, but does a lookup on a dictionary, a sorted word list. By default, look searches for a match in /usr/dict/words, but a different dictionary file may be specified. Checking words in a list for validity &lookup; sed awk sed command sed awk command awk Scripting languages especially suited for parsing text files and command output. May be embedded singly or in combination in pipes and shell scripts. sed Non-interactive stream editor, permits using many ex commands in batch mode. It finds many uses in shell scripts. awk Programmable file extractor and formatter, good for manipulating and/or extracting fields (columns) in structured text files. Its syntax is similar to C. wc wc command wc wc gives a word count on a file or I/O stream: bash $ wc /usr/share/doc/sed-4.1.2/README 13 70 447 README [13 lines 70 words 447 characters] wc -w gives only the word count. wc -l gives only the line count. wc -c gives only the byte count. wc -m gives only the character count. wc -L gives only the length of the longest line. Using wc to count how many .txt files are in current working directory: $ ls *.txt | wc -l # Will work as long as none of the "*.txt" files #+ have a linefeed embedded in their name. # Alternative ways of doing this are: # find . -maxdepth 1 -name \*.txt -print0 | grep -cz . # (shopt -s nullglob; set -- *.txt; echo $#) # Thanks, S.C. Using wc to total up the size of all the files whose names begin with letters in the range d - h bash$ wc [d-h]* | grep total | awk '{print $3}' 71832 Using wc to count the instances of the word Linux in the main source file for this book. bash$ grep Linux abs-book.sgml | wc -l 50 See also and . Certain commands include some of the functionality of wc as options. ... | grep foo | wc -l # This frequently used construct can be more concisely rendered. ... | grep -c foo # Just use the "-c" (or "--count") option of grep. # Thanks, S.C. tr tr command tr character translation filter. Must use quoting and/or brackets, as appropriate. Quotes prevent the shell from reinterpreting the special characters in tr command sequences. Brackets should be quoted to prevent expansion by the shell. Either tr "A-Z" "*" <filename or tr A-Z \* <filename changes all the uppercase letters in filename to asterisks (writes to stdout). On some systems this may not work, but tr A-Z '[**]' will. The option deletes a range of characters. echo "abcdef" # abcdef echo "abcdef" | tr -d b-d # aef tr -d 0-9 <filename # Deletes all digits from the file "filename". The (or ) option deletes all but the first instance of a string of consecutive characters. This option is useful for removing excess whitespace. bash$ echo "XXXXX" | tr --squeeze-repeats 'X' X The complement option inverts the character set to match. With this option, tr acts only upon those characters not matching the specified set. bash$ echo "acfdeb123" | tr -c b-d + +c+d+b++++ Note that tr recognizes POSIX character classes. This is only true of the GNU version of tr, not the generic version often found on commercial UNIX systems. bash$ echo "abcd2ef1" | tr '[:alpha:]' - ----2--1 <firstterm>toupper</firstterm>: Transforms a file to all uppercase. &ex49; <firstterm>lowercase</firstterm>: Changes all filenames in working directory to lowercase. &lowercase; <firstterm>du</firstterm>: DOS to UNIX text file conversion. &du; <firstterm>rot13</firstterm>: ultra-weak encryption. &rot13; Generating <quote>Crypto-Quote</quote> Puzzles &cryptoquote; <firstterm>tr</firstterm> variants The tr utility has two historic variants. The BSD version does not use brackets (tr a-z A-Z), but the SysV one does (tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'). The GNU version of tr resembles the BSD one. fold fold command fold A filter that wraps lines of input to a specified width. This is especially useful with the option, which breaks lines at word spaces (see and ). fmt fmt command fmt Simple-minded file formatter, used as a filter in a pipe to wrap long lines of text output. Formatted file listing. &ex50; See also . A powerful alternative to fmt is Kamil Toman's par utility, available from http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~amc/Par/. col col command reverse line feed This deceptively named filter removes reverse line feeds from an input stream. It also attempts to replace whitespace with equivalent tabs. The chief use of col is in filtering the output from certain text processing utilities, such as groff and tbl. column column command column Column formatter. This filter transforms list-type text output into a pretty-printed table by inserting tabs at appropriate places. Using <firstterm>column</firstterm> to format a directory listing &colm; colrm colrm command colrm Column removal filter. This removes columns (characters) from a file and writes the file, lacking the range of specified columns, back to stdout. colrm 2 4 <filename removes the second through fourth characters from each line of the text file filename. If the file contains tabs or nonprintable characters, this may cause unpredictable behavior. In such cases, consider using expand and unexpand in a pipe preceding colrm. nl nl command fmt Line numbering filter: nl filename lists filename to stdout, but inserts consecutive numbers at the beginning of each non-blank line. If filename omitted, operates on stdin. The output of nl is very similar to cat -b, since, by default nl does not list blank lines. <firstterm>nl</firstterm>: A self-numbering script. &lnum; pr pr command pr Print formatting filter. This will paginate files (or stdout) into sections suitable for hard copy printing or viewing on screen. Various options permit row and column manipulation, joining lines, setting margins, numbering lines, adding page headers, and merging files, among other things. The pr command combines much of the functionality of nl, paste, fold, column, and expand. pr -o 5 --width=65 fileZZZ | more gives a nice paginated listing to screen of fileZZZ with margins set at 5 and 65. A particularly useful option is , forcing double-spacing (same effect as sed -G). gettext gettext command localization The GNU gettext package is a set of utilities for localizing and translating the text output of programs into foreign languages. While originally intended for C programs, it now supports quite a number of programming and scripting languages. The gettext program works on shell scripts. See the info page. msgfmt msgfmt command localization A program for generating binary message catalogs. It is used for localization. iconv iconv command encoding A utility for converting file(s) to a different encoding (character set). Its chief use is for localization. # Convert a string from UTF-8 to UTF-16 and print to the BookList function write_utf8_string { STRING=$1 BOOKLIST=$2 echo -n "$STRING" | iconv -f UTF8 -t UTF16 | \ cut -b 3- | tr -d \\n >> "$BOOKLIST" } # From Peter Knowles' "booklistgen.sh" script #+ for converting files to Sony Librie/PRS-50X format. # (http://booklistgensh.peterknowles.com) recode recode command encoding Consider this a fancier version of iconv, above. This very versatile utility for converting a file to a different encoding scheme. Note that recode is not part of the standard Linux installation. TeX gs TeX command TeX gs command Postscript TeX and Postscript are text markup languages used for preparing copy for printing or formatted video display. TeX is Donald Knuth's elaborate typsetting system. It is often convenient to write a shell script encapsulating all the options and arguments passed to one of these markup languages. Ghostscript (gs) is a GPL-ed Postscript interpreter. texexec texexec command pdf Utility for processing TeX and pdf files. Found in /usr/bin on many Linux distros, it is actually a shell wrapper that calls Perl to invoke Tex. texexec --pdfarrange --result=Concatenated.pdf *pdf # Concatenates all the pdf files in the current working directory #+ into the merged file, Concatenated.pdf . . . # (The --pdfarrange option repaginates a pdf file. See also --pdfcombine.) # The above command line could be parameterized and put into a shell script. enscript enscript command PostScript Utility for converting plain text file to PostScript For example, enscript filename.txt -p filename.ps produces the PostScript output file filename.ps. groff tbl eqn groff command groff tbl command table eqn command equation Yet another text markup and display formatting language is groff. This is the enhanced GNU version of the venerable UNIX roff/troff display and typesetting package. Manpages use groff. The tbl table processing utility is considered part of groff, as its function is to convert table markup into groff commands. The eqn equation processing utility is likewise part of groff, and its function is to convert equation markup into groff commands. <firstterm>manview</firstterm>: Viewing formatted manpages &manview; See also . lex yacc lex command flex yacc command bison The lex lexical analyzer produces programs for pattern matching. This has been replaced by the nonproprietary flex on Linux systems. The yacc utility creates a parser based on a set of specifications. This has been replaced by the nonproprietary bison on Linux systems. File and Archiving Commands <anchor id="faarchiving1">Archiving tar tar command tar The standard UNIX archiving utility. An archive, in the sense discussed here, is simply a set of related files stored in a single location. Originally a Tape ARchiving program, it has developed into a general purpose package that can handle all manner of archiving with all types of destination devices, ranging from tape drives to regular files to even stdout (see ). GNU tar has been patched to accept various compression filters, for example: tar czvf archive_name.tar.gz *, which recursively archives and gzips all files in a directory tree except dotfiles in the current working directory ($PWD). A tar czvf ArchiveName.tar.gz * will include dotfiles in subdirectories below the current working directory. This is an undocumented GNU tar feature. Some useful tar options: create (a new archive) extract (files from existing archive) delete (files from existing archive) This option will not work on magnetic tape devices. append (files to existing archive) append (tar files to existing archive) list (contents of existing archive) update archive compare archive with specified filesystem only process files with a date stamp after specified date gzip the archive (compress or uncompress, depending on whether combined with the or ) option bzip2 the archive It may be difficult to recover data from a corrupted gzipped tar archive. When archiving important files, make multiple backups. shar shar command archive Shell archiving utility. The text files in a shell archive are concatenated without compression, and the resultant archive is essentially a shell script, complete with #!/bin/sh header, containing all the necessary unarchiving commands, as well as the files themselves. Shar archives still show up in Usenet newsgroups, but otherwise shar has been replaced by tar/gzip. The unshar command unpacks shar archives. The mailshar command is a Bash script that uses shar to concatenate multiple files into a single one for e-mailing. This script supports compression and uuencoding. ar ar command archive Creation and manipulation utility for archives, mainly used for binary object file libraries. rpm rpm command package manager The Red Hat Package Manager, or rpm utility provides a wrapper for source or binary archives. It includes commands for installing and checking the integrity of packages, among other things. A simple rpm -i package_name.rpm usually suffices to install a package, though there are many more options available. rpm -qf identifies which package a file originates from. bash$ rpm -qf /bin/ls coreutils-5.2.1-31 rpm -qa gives a complete list of all installed rpm packages on a given system. An rpm -qa package_name lists only the package(s) corresponding to package_name. bash$ rpm -qa redhat-logos-1.1.3-1 glibc-2.2.4-13 cracklib-2.7-12 dosfstools-2.7-1 gdbm-1.8.0-10 ksymoops-2.4.1-1 mktemp-1.5-11 perl-5.6.0-17 reiserfs-utils-3.x.0j-2 ... bash$ rpm -qa docbook-utils docbook-utils-0.6.9-2 bash$ rpm -qa docbook | grep docbook docbook-dtd31-sgml-1.0-10 docbook-style-dsssl-1.64-3 docbook-dtd30-sgml-1.0-10 docbook-dtd40-sgml-1.0-11 docbook-utils-pdf-0.6.9-2 docbook-dtd41-sgml-1.0-10 docbook-utils-0.6.9-2 cpio cpio command cpio This specialized archiving copy command (copy input and output) is rarely seen any more, having been supplanted by tar/gzip. It still has its uses, such as moving a directory tree. With an appropriate block size (for copying) specified, it can be appreciably faster than tar. Using <firstterm>cpio</firstterm> to move a directory tree &ex48; rpm2cpio rpm command cpio This command extracts a cpio archive from an rpm one. Unpacking an <firstterm>rpm</firstterm> archive &derpm; <anchor id="facompression1">Compression gzip gzip command gzip The standard GNU/UNIX compression utility, replacing the inferior and proprietary compress. The corresponding decompression command is gunzip, which is the equivalent of gzip -d. The option sends the output of gzip to stdout. This is useful when piping to other commands. The zcat filter decompresses a gzipped file to stdout, as possible input to a pipe or redirection. This is, in effect, a cat command that works on compressed files (including files processed with the older compress utility). The zcat command is equivalent to gzip -dc. On some commercial UNIX systems, zcat is a synonym for uncompress -c, and will not work on gzipped files. See also . bzip2 bzip2 command bzip2 An alternate compression utility, usually more efficient (but slower) than gzip, especially on large files. The corresponding decompression command is bunzip2. Newer versions of tar have been patched with bzip2 support. compress uncompress compress command compress uncompress command uncompress This is an older, proprietary compression utility found in commercial UNIX distributions. The more efficient gzip has largely replaced it. Linux distributions generally include a compress workalike for compatibility, although gunzip can unarchive files treated with compress. The znew command transforms compressed files into gzipped ones. sq sq command sq Yet another compression (squeeze) utility, a filter that works only on sorted ASCII word lists. It uses the standard invocation syntax for a filter, sq < input-file > output-file. Fast, but not nearly as efficient as gzip. The corresponding uncompression filter is unsq, invoked like sq. The output of sq may be piped to gzip for further compression. zip unzip zip command pkzip.exe unzip command unzip Cross-platform file archiving and compression utility compatible with DOS pkzip.exe. Zipped archives seem to be a more common medium of file exchange on the Internet than tarballs. unarc unarj unrar unarc command arc.exe unarj command arj.exe unrar command rar.exe These Linux utilities permit unpacking archives compressed with the DOS arc.exe, arj.exe, and rar.exe programs. lzma unlzma lzcat lzma command lzma unlzma command unlzma lzcat command lzcat Highly efficient Lempel-Ziv-Markov compression. The syntax of lzma is similar to that of gzip. The 7-zip Website has more information. <anchor id="fainformation1">File Information file file command file A utility for identifying file types. The command file file-name will return a file specification for file-name, such as ascii text or data. It references the magic numbers found in /usr/share/magic, /etc/magic, or /usr/lib/magic, depending on the Linux/UNIX distribution. The option causes file to run in batch mode, to read from a designated file a list of filenames to analyze. The option, when used on a compressed target file, forces an attempt to analyze the uncompressed file type. bash$ file test.tar.gz test.tar.gz: gzip compressed data, deflated, last modified: Sun Sep 16 13:34:51 2001, os: Unix bash file -z test.tar.gz test.tar.gz: GNU tar archive (gzip compressed data, deflated, last modified: Sun Sep 16 13:34:51 2001, os: Unix) # Find sh and Bash scripts in a given directory: DIRECTORY=/usr/local/bin KEYWORD=Bourne # Bourne and Bourne-Again shell scripts file $DIRECTORY/* | fgrep $KEYWORD # Output: # /usr/local/bin/burn-cd: Bourne-Again shell script text executable # /usr/local/bin/burnit: Bourne-Again shell script text executable # /usr/local/bin/cassette.sh: Bourne shell script text executable # /usr/local/bin/copy-cd: Bourne-Again shell script text executable # . . . Stripping comments from C program files &stripc; which which command which which command gives the full path to command. This is useful for finding out whether a particular command or utility is installed on the system. $bash which rm /usr/bin/rm For an interesting use of this command, see . whereis whereis command whereis Similar to which, above, whereis command gives the full path to command, but also to its manpage. $bash whereis rm rm: /bin/rm /usr/share/man/man1/rm.1.bz2 whatis whatis command whatis whatis command looks up command in the whatis database. This is useful for identifying system commands and important configuration files. Consider it a simplified man command. $bash whatis whatis whatis (1) - search the whatis database for complete words Exploring <filename class="directory">/usr/X11R6/bin</filename> &what; See also . vdir vdir command ls Show a detailed directory listing. The effect is similar to ls -lb. This is one of the GNU fileutils. bash$ vdir total 10 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4034 Jul 18 22:04 data1.xrolo -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4602 May 25 13:58 data1.xrolo.bak -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 877 Dec 17 2000 employment.xrolo bash ls -l total 10 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4034 Jul 18 22:04 data1.xrolo -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4602 May 25 13:58 data1.xrolo.bak -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 877 Dec 17 2000 employment.xrolo locate slocate locate command locate slocate command slocate The locate command searches for files using a database stored for just that purpose. The slocate command is the secure version of locate (which may be aliased to slocate). $bash locate hickson /usr/lib/xephem/catalogs/hickson.edb readlink readlink command link Disclose the file that a symbolic link points to. bash$ readlink /usr/bin/awk ../../bin/gawk strings strings command strings Use the strings command to find printable strings in a binary or data file. It will list sequences of printable characters found in the target file. This might be handy for a quick 'n dirty examination of a core dump or for looking at an unknown graphic image file (strings image-file | more might show something like JFIF, which would identify the file as a jpeg graphic). In a script, you would probably parse the output of strings with grep or sed. See and . An <quote>improved</quote> <firstterm>strings</firstterm> command &wstrings; <anchor id="comparisonn1">Comparison diff patch diff command diff patch command patch diff: flexible file comparison utility. It compares the target files line-by-line sequentially. In some applications, such as comparing word dictionaries, it may be helpful to filter the files through sort and uniq before piping them to diff. diff file-1 file-2 outputs the lines in the files that differ, with carets showing which file each particular line belongs to. The option to diff outputs each compared file, line by line, in separate columns, with non-matching lines marked. The and options likewise make the output of the command easier to interpret. There are available various fancy frontends for diff, such as sdiff, wdiff, xdiff, and mgdiff. The diff command returns an exit status of 0 if the compared files are identical, and 1 if they differ. This permits use of diff in a test construct within a shell script (see below). A common use for diff is generating difference files to be used with patch The option outputs files suitable for ed or ex scripts. patch: flexible versioning utility. Given a difference file generated by diff, patch can upgrade a previous version of a package to a newer version. It is much more convenient to distribute a relatively small diff file than the entire body of a newly revised package. Kernel patches have become the preferred method of distributing the frequent releases of the Linux kernel. patch -p1 <patch-file # Takes all the changes listed in 'patch-file' # and applies them to the files referenced therein. # This upgrades to a newer version of the package. Patching the kernel: cd /usr/src gzip -cd patchXX.gz | patch -p0 # Upgrading kernel source using 'patch'. # From the Linux kernel docs "README", # by anonymous author (Alan Cox?). The diff command can also recursively compare directories (for the filenames present). bash$ diff -r ~/notes1 ~/notes2 Only in /home/bozo/notes1: file02 Only in /home/bozo/notes1: file03 Only in /home/bozo/notes2: file04 Use zdiff to compare gzipped files. Use diffstat to create a histogram (point-distribution graph) of output from diff. diff3 merge diff3 command diff3 merge command merge An extended version of diff that compares three files at a time. This command returns an exit value of 0 upon successful execution, but unfortunately this gives no information about the results of the comparison. bash$ diff3 file-1 file-2 file-3 ==== 1:1c This is line 1 of "file-1". 2:1c This is line 1 of "file-2". 3:1c This is line 1 of "file-3" The merge (3-way file merge) command is an interesting adjunct to diff3. Its syntax is merge Mergefile file1 file2. The result is to output to Mergefile the changes that lead from file1 to file2. Consider this command a stripped-down version of patch. sdiff sdiff command sdiff Compare and/or edit two files in order to merge them into an output file. Because of its interactive nature, this command would find little use in a script. cmp cmp command cmp The cmp command is a simpler version of diff, above. Whereas diff reports the differences between two files, cmp merely shows at what point they differ. Like diff, cmp returns an exit status of 0 if the compared files are identical, and 1 if they differ. This permits use in a test construct within a shell script. Using <firstterm>cmp</firstterm> to compare two files within a script. &filecomp; Use zcmp on gzipped files. comm comm command comm Versatile file comparison utility. The files must be sorted for this to be useful. comm -options first-file second-file comm file-1 file-2 outputs three columns: column 1 = lines unique to file-1 column 2 = lines unique to file-2 column 3 = lines common to both. The options allow suppressing output of one or more columns. suppresses column 1 suppresses column 2 suppresses column 3 suppresses both columns 1 and 2, etc. This command is useful for comparing dictionaries or word lists -- sorted text files with one word per line. <anchor id="fautils1">Utilities basename basename command basename Strips the path information from a file name, printing only the file name. The construction basename $0 lets the script know its name, that is, the name it was invoked by. This can be used for usage messages if, for example a script is called with missing arguments: echo "Usage: `basename $0` arg1 arg2 ... argn" dirname dirname command dirname Strips the basename from a filename, printing only the path information. basename and dirname can operate on any arbitrary string. The argument does not need to refer to an existing file, or even be a filename for that matter (see ). <firstterm>basename</firstterm> and <firstterm>dirname</firstterm> &ex35; split csplit split command split csplit command csplit These are utilities for splitting a file into smaller chunks. Their usual use is for splitting up large files in order to back them up on floppies or preparatory to e-mailing or uploading them. The csplit command splits a file according to context, the split occuring where patterns are matched. A script that copies itself in sections &splitcopy; <anchor id="faencencr1">Encoding and Encryption sum cksum md5sum sha1sum sum command sum cksum command cksum md5sum command md5sum command sha1sum These are utilities for generating checksums. A checksum is a number mathematically calculated from the contents of a file, for the purpose of checking its integrity. A script might refer to a list of checksums for security purposes, such as ensuring that the contents of key system files have not been altered or corrupted. For security applications, use the md5sum (message digest 5 checksum) command, or better yet, the newer sha1sum (Secure Hash Algorithm). bash$ cksum /boot/vmlinuz 1670054224 804083 /boot/vmlinuz bash$ echo -n "Top Secret" | cksum 3391003827 10 bash$ md5sum /boot/vmlinuz 0f43eccea8f09e0a0b2b5cf1dcf333ba /boot/vmlinuz bash$ echo -n "Top Secret" | md5sum 8babc97a6f62a4649716f4df8d61728f - The cksum command shows the size, in bytes, of its target, whether file or stdout. The md5sum and sha1sum commands display a dash when they receive their input from stdout. Checking file integrity &fileintegrity; Also see , , and for creative uses of the md5sum command. There have been reports that the 128-bit md5sum can be cracked, so the more secure 160-bit sha1sum is a welcome new addition to the checksum toolkit. bash$ md5sum testfile e181e2c8720c60522c4c4c981108e367 testfile bash$ sha1sum testfile 5d7425a9c08a66c3177f1e31286fa40986ffc996 testfile Security consultants have demonstrated that even sha1sum can be compromised. Fortunately, newer Linux distros include longer bit-length sha224sum, sha256sum, sha384sum, and sha512sum commands. shred shred command secure delete Securely erase a file by overwriting it multiple times with random bit patterns before deleting it. This command has the same effect as , but does it in a more thorough and elegant manner. This is one of the GNU fileutils. Advanced forensic technology may still be able to recover the contents of a file, even after application of shred. uuencode uuencode command uuencode This utility encodes binary files (images, sound files, compressed files, etc.) into ASCII characters, making them suitable for transmission in the body of an e-mail message or in a newsgroup posting. This is especially useful where MIME (multimedia) encoding is not available. uudecode uudecode command uudecode This reverses the encoding, decoding uuencoded files back into the original binaries. Uudecoding encoded files &ex52; The fold -s command may be useful (possibly in a pipe) to process long uudecoded text messages downloaded from Usenet newsgroups. mimencode mmencode mimencode command mime mmencode command encode The mimencode and mmencode commands process multimedia-encoded e-mail attachments. Although mail user agents (such as pine or kmail) normally handle this automatically, these particular utilities permit manipulating such attachments manually from the command line or in batch processing mode by means of a shell script. crypt crypt command crypt At one time, this was the standard UNIX file encryption utility. This is a symmetric block cipher, used to encrypt files on a single system or local network, as opposed to the public key cipher class, of which pgp is a well-known example. Politically-motivated government regulations prohibiting the export of encryption software resulted in the disappearance of crypt from much of the UNIX world, and it is still missing from most Linux distributions. Fortunately, programmers have come up with a number of decent alternatives to it, among them the author's very own cruft (see ). <anchor id="famisc1">Miscellaneous mktemp temporary command filename Create a temporary file Creates a temporary directory when invoked with the option. with a unique filename. When invoked from the command line without additional arguments, it creates a zero-length file in the /tmp directory. bash$ mktemp /tmp/tmp.zzsvql3154 PREFIX=filename tempfile=`mktemp $PREFIX.XXXXXX` # ^^^^^^ Need at least 6 placeholders #+ in the filename template. # If no filename template supplied, #+ "tmp.XXXXXXXXXX" is the default. echo "tempfile name = $tempfile" # tempfile name = filename.QA2ZpY # or something similar... # Creates a file of that name in the current working directory #+ with 600 file permissions. # A "umask 177" is therefore unnecessary, #+ but it's good programming practice anyhow. make make command Makefile Utility for building and compiling binary packages. This can also be used for any set of operations triggered by incremental changes in source files. The make command checks a Makefile, a list of file dependencies and operations to be carried out. The make utility is, in effect, a powerful scripting language similar in many ways to Bash, but with the capability of recognizing dependencies. For in-depth coverage of this useful tool set, see the GNU software documentation site. install install command install Special purpose file copying command, similar to cp, but capable of setting permissions and attributes of the copied files. This command seems tailormade for installing software packages, and as such it shows up frequently in Makefiles (in the make install : section). It could likewise prove useful in installation scripts. dos2unix dos2unix command file converter This utility, written by Benjamin Lin and collaborators, converts DOS-formatted text files (lines terminated by CR-LF) to UNIX format (lines terminated by LF only), and vice-versa. ptx ptx command index The ptx [targetfile] command outputs a permuted index (cross-reference list) of the targetfile. This may be further filtered and formatted in a pipe, if necessary. more less more command more less command less Pagers that display a text file or stream to stdout, one screenful at a time. These may be used to filter the output of stdout . . . or of a script. An interesting application of more is to test drive a command sequence, to forestall potentially unpleasant consequences. ls /home/bozo | awk '{print "rm -rf " $1}' | more # ^^^^ # Testing the effect of the following (disastrous) command line: # ls /home/bozo | awk '{print "rm -rf " $1}' | sh # Hand off to the shell to execute . . . ^^ The less pager has the interesting property of doing a formatted display of man page source. See . Communications Commands Certain of the following commands find use in network data transfer and analysis, as well as in chasing spammers. <anchor id="communinfo1">Information and Statistics host host command host Searches for information about an Internet host by name or IP address, using DNS. bash$ host surfacemail.com surfacemail.com. has address 202.92.42.236 ipcalc ipcalc command ipcalc Displays IP information for a host. With the option, ipcalc does a reverse DNS lookup, finding the name of the host (server) from the IP address. bash$ ipcalc -h 202.92.42.236 HOSTNAME=surfacemail.com nslookup nslookup command name server lookup Do an Internet name server lookup on a host by IP address. This is essentially equivalent to ipcalc -h or dig -x . The command may be run either interactively or noninteractively, i.e., from within a script. The nslookup command has allegedly been deprecated, but it is still useful. bash$ nslookup -sil 66.97.104.180 nslookup kuhleersparnis.ch Server: 135.116.137.2 Address: 135.116.137.2#53 Non-authoritative answer: Name: kuhleersparnis.ch dig dig command domain information groper Domain Information Groper. Similar to nslookup, dig does an Internet name server lookup on a host. May be run from the command line or from within a script. Some interesting options to dig are for setting a query timeout to N seconds, for continuing to query servers until a reply is received, and for doing a reverse address lookup. Compare the output of dig -x with ipcalc -h and nslookup. bash$ dig -x 81.9.6.2 ;; Got answer: ;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NXDOMAIN, id: 11649 ;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 0, AUTHORITY: 1, ADDITIONAL: 0 ;; QUESTION SECTION: ;2.6.9.81.in-addr.arpa. IN PTR ;; AUTHORITY SECTION: 6.9.81.in-addr.arpa. 3600 IN SOA ns.eltel.net. noc.eltel.net. 2002031705 900 600 86400 3600 ;; Query time: 537 msec ;; SERVER: 135.116.137.2#53(135.116.137.2) ;; WHEN: Wed Jun 26 08:35:24 2002 ;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 91 Finding out where to report a spammer &spamlookup; Analyzing a spam domain &isspammer; For a much more elaborate version of the above script, see . traceroute traceroute command traceroute Trace the route taken by packets sent to a remote host. This command works within a LAN, WAN, or over the Internet. The remote host may be specified by an IP address. The output of this command may be filtered by grep or sed in a pipe. bash$ traceroute 81.9.6.2 traceroute to 81.9.6.2 (81.9.6.2), 30 hops max, 38 byte packets 1 tc43.xjbnnbrb.com (136.30.178.8) 191.303 ms 179.400 ms 179.767 ms 2 or0.xjbnnbrb.com (136.30.178.1) 179.536 ms 179.534 ms 169.685 ms 3 192.168.11.101 (192.168.11.101) 189.471 ms 189.556 ms * ... ping ping command ping Broadcast an ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packet to another machine, either on a local or remote network. This is a diagnostic tool for testing network connections, and it should be used with caution. bash$ ping localhost PING localhost.localdomain (127.0.0.1) from 127.0.0.1 : 56(84) bytes of data. 64 bytes from localhost.localdomain (127.0.0.1): icmp_seq=0 ttl=255 time=709 usec 64 bytes from localhost.localdomain (127.0.0.1): icmp_seq=1 ttl=255 time=286 usec --- localhost.localdomain ping statistics --- 2 packets transmitted, 2 packets received, 0% packet loss round-trip min/avg/max/mdev = 0.286/0.497/0.709/0.212 ms A successful ping returns an exit status of 0. This can be tested for in a script. HNAME=nastyspammer.com # HNAME=$HOST # Debug: test for localhost. count=2 # Send only two pings. if [[ `ping -c $count "$HNAME"` ]] then echo ""$HNAME" still up and broadcasting spam your way." else echo ""$HNAME" seems to be down. Pity." fi whois whois command domain name server Perform a DNS (Domain Name System) lookup. The option permits specifying which particular whois server to query. See and . finger finger command finger Retrieve information about users on a network. Optionally, this command can display a user's ~/.plan, ~/.project, and ~/.forward files, if present. bash$ finger Login Name Tty Idle Login Time Office Office Phone bozo Bozo Bozeman tty1 8 Jun 25 16:59 (:0) bozo Bozo Bozeman ttyp0 Jun 25 16:59 (:0.0) bozo Bozo Bozeman ttyp1 Jun 25 17:07 (:0.0) bash$ finger bozo Login: bozo Name: Bozo Bozeman Directory: /home/bozo Shell: /bin/bash Office: 2355 Clown St., 543-1234 On since Fri Aug 31 20:13 (MST) on tty1 1 hour 38 minutes idle On since Fri Aug 31 20:13 (MST) on pts/0 12 seconds idle On since Fri Aug 31 20:13 (MST) on pts/1 On since Fri Aug 31 20:31 (MST) on pts/2 1 hour 16 minutes idle Mail last read Tue Jul 3 10:08 2007 (MST) No Plan. Out of security considerations, many networks disable finger and its associated daemon. A daemon is a background process not attached to a terminal session. Daemons perform designated services either at specified times or explicitly triggered by certain events. The word daemon means ghost in Greek, and there is certainly something mysterious, almost supernatural, about the way UNIX daemons wander about behind the scenes, silently carrying out their appointed tasks. chfn chfn command finger Change information disclosed by the finger command. vrfy vrfy command vrfy Verify an Internet e-mail address. This command seems to be missing from newer Linux distros. <anchor id="commremote1">Remote Host Access sx rx sx command sx rx command rx The sx and rx command set serves to transfer files to and from a remote host using the xmodem protocol. These are generally part of a communications package, such as minicom. sz rz sz command sz rz command rz The sz and rz command set serves to transfer files to and from a remote host using the zmodem protocol. Zmodem has certain advantages over xmodem, such as faster transmission rate and resumption of interrupted file transfers. Like sx and rx, these are generally part of a communications package. ftp ftp command file transfer Utility and protocol for uploading / downloading files to or from a remote host. An ftp session can be automated in a script (see , , and ). uucp uux cu uucp command uucp uux unix to unix execute cu call up command uucp uucp: UNIX to UNIX copy. This is a communications package for transferring files between UNIX servers. A shell script is an effective way to handle a uucp command sequence. Since the advent of the Internet and e-mail, uucp seems to have faded into obscurity, but it still exists and remains perfectly workable in situations where an Internet connection is not available or appropriate. The advantage of uucp is that it is fault-tolerant, so even if there is a service interruption the copy operation will resume where it left off when the connection is restored. --- uux: UNIX to UNIX execute. Execute a command on a remote system. This command is part of the uucp package. --- cu: Call Up a remote system and connect as a simple terminal. It is a sort of dumbed-down version of telnet. This command is part of the uucp package. telnet telnet command telnet Utility and protocol for connecting to a remote host. The telnet protocol contains security holes and should therefore probably be avoided. Its use within a shell script is not recommended. wget wget command download The wget utility noninteractively retrieves or downloads files from a Web or ftp site. It works well in a script. wget -p http://www.xyz23.com/file01.html # The -p or --page-requisite option causes wget to fetch all files #+ required to display the specified page. wget -r ftp://ftp.xyz24.net/~bozo/project_files/ -O $SAVEFILE # The -r option recursively follows and retrieves all links #+ on the specified site. wget -c ftp://ftp.xyz25.net/bozofiles/filename.tar.bz2 # The -c option lets wget resume an interrupted download. # This works with ftp servers and many HTTP sites. Getting a stock quote "efetch; See also and . lynx lynx command browser The lynx Web and file browser can be used inside a script (with the option) to retrieve a file from a Web or ftp site noninteractively. lynx -dump http://www.xyz23.com/file01.html >$SAVEFILE With the option, lynx starts at the HTTP URL specified as an argument, then crawls through all links located on that particular server. Used together with the option, outputs page text to a log file. rlogin rlogin command remote login Remote login, initates a session on a remote host. This command has security issues, so use ssh instead. rsh rsh command remote shell Remote shell, executes command(s) on a remote host. This has security issues, so use ssh instead. rcp rcp command remote copy Remote copy, copies files between two different networked machines. rsync rsync command remote update Remote synchronize, updates (synchronizes) files between two different networked machines. bash$ rsync -a ~/sourcedir/*txt /node1/subdirectory/ Updating FC4 &fc4upd; See also . Using rcp, rsync, and similar utilities with security implications in a shell script may not be advisable. Consider, instead, using ssh, scp, or an expect script. ssh ssh command secure shell Secure shell, logs onto a remote host and executes commands there. This secure replacement for telnet, rlogin, rcp, and rsh uses identity authentication and encryption. See its manpage for details. Using <firstterm>ssh</firstterm> &remote; Within a loop, ssh may cause unexpected behavior. According to a Usenet post in the comp.unix shell archives, ssh inherits the loop's stdin. To remedy this, pass ssh either the or option. Thanks, Jason Bechtel, for pointing this out. scp scp command secure copy Secure copy, similar in function to rcp, copies files between two different networked machines, but does so using authentication, and with a security level similar to ssh. <anchor id="commlocal1">Local Network write write command write This is a utility for terminal-to-terminal communication. It allows sending lines from your terminal (console or xterm) to that of another user. The mesg command may, of course, be used to disable write access to a terminal Since write is interactive, it would not normally find use in a script. netconfig netconfig command network A command-line utility for configuring a network adapter (using DHCP). This command is native to Red Hat centric Linux distros. <anchor id="commmail1">Mail mail mail command mail Send or read e-mail messages. This stripped-down command-line mail client works fine as a command embedded in a script. A script that mails itself &selfmailer; mailto mailto command MIME mail Similar to the mail command, mailto sends e-mail messages from the command line or in a script. However, mailto also permits sending MIME (multimedia) messages. mailstats mailstats command statistics Show mail statistics. This command may be invoked only by root. root# mailstats Statistics from Tue Jan 1 20:32:08 2008 M msgsfr bytes_from msgsto bytes_to msgsrej msgsdis msgsqur Mailer 4 1682 24118K 0 0K 0 0 0 esmtp 9 212 640K 1894 25131K 0 0 0 local ===================================================================== T 1894 24758K 1894 25131K 0 0 0 C 414 0 vacation vacation command mail This utility automatically replies to e-mails that the intended recipient is on vacation and temporarily unavailable. It runs on a network, in conjunction with sendmail, and is not applicable to a dial-up POPmail account. Terminal Control Commands <anchor id="termcommandlisting1">Command affecting the console or terminal tput tput command terminal Initialize terminal and/or fetch information about it from terminfo data. Various options permit certain terminal operations: tput clear is the equivalent of clear; tput reset is the equivalent of reset. bash$ tput longname xterm terminal emulator (X Window System) Issuing a tput cup X Y moves the cursor to the (X,Y) coordinates in the current terminal. A clear to erase the terminal screen would normally precede this. Some interesting options to tput are: , for high-intensity text , to underline text in the terminal , to render text in reverse , to reset the terminal parameters (to normal), without clearing the screen Example scripts using tput: Note that stty offers a more powerful command set for controlling a terminal. infocmp infocmp command terminal This command prints out extensive information about the current terminal. It references the terminfo database. bash$ infocmp # Reconstructed via infocmp from file: /usr/share/terminfo/r/rxvt rxvt|rxvt terminal emulator (X Window System), am, bce, eo, km, mir, msgr, xenl, xon, colors#8, cols#80, it#8, lines#24, pairs#64, acsc=``aaffggjjkkllmmnnooppqqrrssttuuvvwwxxyyzz{{||}}~~, bel=^G, blink=\E[5m, bold=\E[1m, civis=\E[?25l, clear=\E[H\E[2J, cnorm=\E[?25h, cr=^M, ... reset reset command reset Reset terminal parameters and clear text screen. As with clear, the cursor and prompt reappear in the upper lefthand corner of the terminal. clear clear command clear The clear command simply clears the text screen at the console or in an xterm. The prompt and cursor reappear at the upper lefthand corner of the screen or xterm window. This command may be used either at the command line or in a script. See . resize resize command resize Echoes commands necessary to set $TERM and $TERMCAP to duplicate the size (dimensions) of the current terminal. bash$ resize set noglob; setenv COLUMNS '80'; setenv LINES '24'; unset noglob; script script command script This utility records (saves to a file) all the user keystrokes at the command line in a console or an xterm window. This, in effect, creates a record of a session. Math Commands <anchor id="mathcommandlisting1"><quote>Doing the numbers</quote> factor factor command factor Decompose an integer into prime factors. bash$ factor 27417 27417: 3 13 19 37 Generating prime numbers &primes2; bc bc command bc Bash can't handle floating point calculations, and it lacks operators for certain important mathematical functions. Fortunately, bc comes to the rescue. Not just a versatile, arbitrary precision calculation utility, bc offers many of the facilities of a programming language. bc has a syntax vaguely resembling C. Since it is a fairly well-behaved UNIX utility, and may therefore be used in a pipe, bc comes in handy in scripts. Here is a simple template for using bc to calculate a script variable. This uses command substitution. variable=$(echo "OPTIONS; OPERATIONS" | bc) Monthly Payment on a Mortgage &monthlypmt; Base Conversion &base; An alternate method of invoking bc involves using a here document embedded within a command substitution block. This is especially appropriate when a script needs to pass a list of options and commands to bc. variable=`bc << LIMIT_STRING options statements operations LIMIT_STRING ` ...or... variable=$(bc << LIMIT_STRING options statements operations LIMIT_STRING ) Invoking <firstterm>bc</firstterm> using a <firstterm>here document</firstterm> &altbc; Calculating PI &cannon; See also . dc dc command dc The dc (desk calculator) utility is stack-oriented and uses RPN (Reverse Polish Notation). Like bc, it has much of the power of a programming language. Most persons avoid dc, since it requires non-intuitive input. Yet, it has its uses. Converting a decimal number to hexadecimal &hexconvert; Studying the info page for dc is a painful path to understanding its intricacies. There seems to be a small, select group of dc wizards who delight in showing off their mastery of this powerful, but arcane utility. bash$ echo "16i[q]sa[ln0=aln100%Pln100/snlbx]sbA0D68736142snlbxq" | dc" Bash Factoring &factr; awk awk command math Yet another way of doing floating point math in a script is using awk's built-in math functions in a shell wrapper. Calculating the hypotenuse of a triangle &hypot; Miscellaneous Commands <anchor id="misccommandlisting1">Command that fit in no special category jot seq jot command jot seq command seq loop arguments These utilities emit a sequence of integers, with a user-selectable increment. The default separator character between each integer is a newline, but this can be changed with the option. bash$ seq 5 1 2 3 4 5 bash$ seq -s : 5 1:2:3:4:5 Both jot and seq come in handy in a for loop. Using <firstterm>seq</firstterm> to generate loop arguments &ex53; A simpler example: # Create a set of 10 files, #+ named file.1, file.2 . . . file.10. COUNT=10 PREFIX=file for filename in `seq $COUNT` do touch $PREFIX.$filename # Or, can do other operations, #+ such as rm, grep, etc. done Letter Count" &lettercount; Somewhat more capable than seq, jot is a classic UNIX utility that is not normally included in a standard Linux distro. However, the source rpm is available for download from the MIT repository. Unlike seq, jot can generate a sequence of random numbers, using the option. bash$ jot -r 3 999 1069 1272 1428 getopt getopt command option The getopt command parses command-line options preceded by a dash. This external command corresponds to the getopts Bash builtin. Using getopt permits handling long options by means of the flag, and this also allows parameter reshuffling. Using <firstterm>getopt</firstterm> to parse command-line options &ex33a; As Peggy Russell points out: It is often necessary to include an eval to correctly process whitespace and quotes. args=$(getopt -o a:bc:d -- "$@") eval set -- "$args" See for a simplified emulation of getopt. run-parts run-parts command run-parts The run-parts command This is actually a script adapted from the Debian Linux distribution. executes all the scripts in a target directory, sequentially in ASCII-sorted filename order. Of course, the scripts need to have execute permission. The cron daemon invokes run-parts to run the scripts in the /etc/cron.* directories. yes yes command yes In its default behavior the yes command feeds a continuous string of the character y followed by a line feed to stdout. A controlC terminates the run. A different output string may be specified, as in yes different string, which would continually output different string to stdout. One might well ask the purpose of this. From the command line or in a script, the output of yes can be redirected or piped into a program expecting user input. In effect, this becomes a sort of poor man's version of expect. yes | fsck /dev/hda1 runs fsck non-interactively (careful!). yes | rm -r dirname has same effect as rm -rf dirname (careful!). Caution advised when piping yes to a potentially dangerous system command, such as fsck or fdisk. It might have unintended consequences. The yes command parses variables, or more accurately, it echoes parsed variables. For example: bash$ yes $BASH_VERSION 3.1.17(1)-release 3.1.17(1)-release 3.1.17(1)-release 3.1.17(1)-release 3.1.17(1)-release . . . This particular feature may be used to create a very large ASCII file on the fly: bash$ yes $PATH > huge_file.txt Ctl-C Hit Ctl-C very quickly, or you just might get more than you bargained for. . . . The yes command may be emulated in a very simple script function. yes () { # Trivial emulation of "yes" ... local DEFAULT_TEXT="y" while [ true ] # Endless loop. do if [ -z "$1" ] then echo "$DEFAULT_TEXT" else # If argument ... echo "$1" # ... expand and echo it. fi done # The only things missing are the } #+ --help and --version options. banner banner command banner Prints arguments as a large vertical banner to stdout, using an ASCII character (default '#'). This may be redirected to a printer for hardcopy. Note that banner has been dropped from many Linux distros. printenv printenv command environment Show all the environmental variables set for a particular user. bash$ printenv | grep HOME HOME=/home/bozo lp lp command lpr The lp and lpr commands send file(s) to the print queue, to be printed as hard copy. The print queue is the group of jobs waiting in line to be printed. These commands trace the origin of their names to the line printers of another era. bash$ lp file1.txt or bash lp <file1.txt It is often useful to pipe the formatted output from pr to lp. bash$ pr -options file1.txt | lp Formatting packages, such as groff and Ghostscript may send their output directly to lp. bash$ groff -Tascii file.tr | lp bash$ gs -options | lp file.ps Related commands are lpq, for viewing the print queue, and lprm, for removing jobs from the print queue. tee tee command tee [UNIX borrows an idea from the plumbing trade.] This is a redirection operator, but with a difference. Like the plumber's tee, it permits siphoning off to a file the output of a command or commands within a pipe, but without affecting the result. This is useful for printing an ongoing process to a file or paper, perhaps to keep track of it for debugging purposes. (redirection) |----> to file | ==========================|==================== command ---> command ---> |tee ---> command ---> ---> output of pipe =============================================== cat listfile* | sort | tee check.file | uniq > result.file # ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ # The file "check.file" contains the concatenated sorted "listfiles," #+ before the duplicate lines are removed by 'uniq.' mkfifo mkfifo command mkfifo This obscure command creates a named pipe, a temporary first-in-first-out buffer for transferring data between processes. For an excellent overview of this topic, see Andy Vaught's article, Introduction to Named Pipes, in the September, 1997 issue of Linux Journal. Typically, one process writes to the FIFO, and the other reads from it. See . #!/bin/bash # This short script by Omair Eshkenazi. # Used in ABS Guide with permission (thanks!). mkfifo pipe1 # Yes, pipes can be given names. mkfifo pipe2 # Hence the designation "named pipe." (cut -d' ' -f1 | tr "a-z" "A-Z") >pipe2 <pipe1 & ls -l | tr -s ' ' | cut -d' ' -f3,9- | tee pipe1 | cut -d' ' -f2 | paste - pipe2 rm -f pipe1 rm -f pipe2 # No need to kill background processes when script terminates (why not?). exit $? Now, invoke the script and explain the output: sh mkfifo-example.sh 4830.tar.gz BOZO pipe1 BOZO pipe2 BOZO mkfifo-example.sh BOZO Mixed.msg BOZO pathchk pathchk command pathchk This command checks the validity of a filename. If the filename exceeds the maximum allowable length (255 characters) or one or more of the directories in its path is not searchable, then an error message results. Unfortunately, pathchk does not return a recognizable error code, and it is therefore pretty much useless in a script. Consider instead the file test operators. dd dd command dd This is the somewhat obscure and much feared data duplicator command. Originally a utility for exchanging data on magnetic tapes between UNIX minicomputers and IBM mainframes, this command still has its uses. The dd command simply copies a file (or stdin/stdout), but with conversions. Possible conversions are ASCII/EBCDIC, EBCDIC (pronounced ebb-sid-ick) is an acronym for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. This is an IBM data format no longer in much use. A bizarre application of the option of dd is as a quick 'n easy, but not very secure text file encoder. cat $file | dd conv=swab,ebcdic > $file_encrypted # Encode (looks like gibberish). # Might as well switch bytes (swab), too, for a little extra obscurity. cat $file_encrypted | dd conv=swab,ascii > $file_plaintext # Decode. upper/lower case, swapping of byte pairs between input and output, and skipping and/or truncating the head or tail of the input file. # Converting a file to all uppercase: dd if=$filename conv=ucase > $filename.uppercase # lcase # For lower case conversion Some basic options to dd are: if=INFILE INFILE is the source file. of=OUTFILE OUTFILE is the target file, the file that will have the data written to it. bs=BLOCKSIZE This is the size of each block of data being read and written, usually a power of 2. skip=BLOCKS How many blocks of data to skip in INFILE before starting to copy. This is useful when the INFILE has garbage or garbled data in its header or when it is desirable to copy only a portion of the INFILE. seek=BLOCKS How many blocks of data to skip in OUTFILE before starting to copy, leaving blank data at beginning of OUTFILE. count=BLOCKS Copy only this many blocks of data, rather than the entire INFILE. conv=CONVERSION Type of conversion to be applied to INFILE data before copying operation. A dd --help lists all the options this powerful utility takes. A script that copies itself &selfcopy; Exercising <firstterm>dd</firstterm> &exercisingdd; To demonstrate just how versatile dd is, let's use it to capture keystrokes. Capturing Keystrokes &ddkeypress; The dd command can do random access on a data stream. echo -n . | dd bs=1 seek=4 of=file conv=notrunc # The "conv=notrunc" option means that the output file #+ will not be truncated. # Thanks, S.C. The dd command can copy raw data and disk images to and from devices, such as floppies and tape drives (). A common use is creating boot floppies. dd if=kernel-image of=/dev/fd0H1440 Similarly, dd can copy the entire contents of a floppy, even one formatted with a foreign OS, to the hard drive as an image file. dd if=/dev/fd0 of=/home/bozo/projects/floppy.img Other applications of dd include initializing temporary swap files () and ramdisks (). It can even do a low-level copy of an entire hard drive partition, although this is not necessarily recommended. People (with presumably nothing better to do with their time) are constantly thinking of interesting applications of dd. Securely deleting a file &blotout; See also the dd thread entry in the bibliography. od od command od The od, or octal dump filter converts input (or files) to octal (base-8) or other bases. This is useful for viewing or processing binary data files or otherwise unreadable system device files, such as /dev/urandom, and as a filter for binary data. head -c4 /dev/urandom | od -N4 -tu4 | sed -ne '1s/.* //p' # Sample output: 1324725719, 3918166450, 2989231420, etc. # From rnd.sh example script, by Stéphane Chazelas See also and . hexdump hexdump command hexadecimal Performs a hexadecimal, octal, decimal, or ASCII dump of a binary file. This command is the rough equivalent of od, above, but not nearly as useful. May be used to view the contents of a binary file, in combination with dd and less. dd if=/bin/ls | hexdump -C | less # The -C option nicely formats the output in tabular form. objdump objdump command object binary dump Displays information about an object file or binary executable in either hexadecimal form or as a disassembled listing (with the option). bash$ objdump -d /bin/ls /bin/ls: file format elf32-i386 Disassembly of section .init: 080490bc <.init>: 80490bc: 55 push %ebp 80490bd: 89 e5 mov %esp,%ebp . . . mcookie magic command cookie This command generates a magic cookie, a 128-bit (32-character) pseudorandom hexadecimal number, normally used as an authorization signature by the X server. This also available for use in a script as a quick 'n dirty random number. random000=$(mcookie) Of course, a script could use md5sum for the same purpose. # Generate md5 checksum on the script itself. random001=`md5sum $0 | awk '{print $1}'` # Uses 'awk' to strip off the filename. The mcookie command gives yet another way to generate a unique filename. Filename generator &tempfilename; units units command conversion This utility converts between different units of measure. While normally invoked in interactive mode, units may find use in a script. Converting meters to miles &unitconversion; m4 m4 command macro A hidden treasure, m4 is a powerful macro A macro is a symbolic constant that expands into a command string or a set of operations on parameters. Simply put, it's a shortcut or abbreviation. processing filter, virtually a complete language. Although originally written as a pre-processor for RatFor, m4 turned out to be useful as a stand-alone utility. In fact, m4 combines some of the functionality of eval, tr, and awk, in addition to its extensive macro expansion facilities. The April, 2002 issue of Linux Journal has a very nice article on m4 and its uses. Using <firstterm>m4</firstterm> &m4; xmessage xmessage command macro This X-based variant of echo pops up a message/query window on the desktop. xmessage Left click to continue -button okay zenity zenity command macro The zenity utility is adept at displaying GTK+ dialog widgets and very suitable for scripting purposes. doexec doexec command executable arg list The doexec command enables passing an arbitrary list of arguments to a binary executable. In particular, passing argv[0] (which corresponds to $0 in a script) lets the executable be invoked by various names, and it can then carry out different sets of actions, according to the name by which it was called. What this amounts to is roundabout way of passing options to an executable. For example, the /usr/local/bin directory might contain a binary called aaa. Invoking doexec /usr/local/bin/aaa list would list all those files in the current working directory beginning with an a, while invoking (the same executable with) doexec /usr/local/bin/aaa delete would delete those files. The various behaviors of the executable must be defined within the code of the executable itself, analogous to something like the following in a shell script: case `basename $0` in "name1" ) do_something;; "name2" ) do_something_else;; "name3" ) do_yet_another_thing;; * ) bail_out;; esac dialog dialog command dialog The dialog family of tools provide a method of calling interactive dialog boxes from a script. The more elaborate variations of dialog -- gdialog, Xdialog, and kdialog -- actually invoke X-Windows widgets. sox sox command sound The sox, or sound exchange command plays and performs transformations on sound files. In fact, the /usr/bin/play executable (now deprecated) is nothing but a shell wrapper for sox. For example, sox soundfile.wav soundfile.au changes a WAV sound file into a (Sun audio format) AU sound file. Shell scripts are ideally suited for batch-processing sox operations on sound files. For examples, see the Linux Radio Timeshift HOWTO and the MP3do Project. System and Administrative Commands The startup and shutdown scripts in /etc/rc.d illustrate the uses (and usefulness) of many of these comands. These are usually invoked by root and used for system maintenance or emergency filesystem repairs. Use with caution, as some of these commands may damage your system if misused. <anchor id="usersgroups1">Users and Groups users users command users Show all logged on users. This is the approximate equivalent of who -q. groups groups command groups Lists the current user and the groups she belongs to. This corresponds to the $GROUPS internal variable, but gives the group names, rather than the numbers. bash$ groups bozita cdrom cdwriter audio xgrp bash$ echo $GROUPS 501 chown chgrp chown command chown chgrp command chgrp The chown command changes the ownership of a file or files. This command is a useful method that root can use to shift file ownership from one user to another. An ordinary user may not change the ownership of files, not even her own files. This is the case on a Linux machine or a UNIX system with disk quotas. root# chown bozo *.txt The chgrp command changes the group ownership of a file or files. You must be owner of the file(s) as well as a member of the destination group (or root) to use this operation. chgrp --recursive dunderheads *.data # The "dunderheads" group will now own all the "*.data" files #+ all the way down the $PWD directory tree (that's what "recursive" means). useradd userdel useradd command useradd userdel command userdel The useradd administrative command adds a user account to the system and creates a home directory for that particular user, if so specified. The corresponding userdel command removes a user account from the system The userdel command will fail if the particular user being deleted is still logged on. and deletes associated files. The adduser command is a synonym for useradd and is usually a symbolic link to it. usermod usermod command usermod Modify a user account. Changes may be made to the password, group membership, expiration date, and other attributes of a given user's account. With this command, a user's password may be locked, which has the effect of disabling the account. groupmod groupmod command group Modify a given group. The group name and/or ID number may be changed using this command. id id command id The id command lists the real and effective user IDs and the group IDs of the user associated with the current process. This is the counterpart to the $UID, $EUID, and $GROUPS internal Bash variables. bash$ id uid=501(bozo) gid=501(bozo) groups=501(bozo),22(cdrom),80(cdwriter),81(audio) bash$ echo $UID 501 The id command shows the effective IDs only when they differ from the real ones. Also see . lid lid command group The lid (list ID) command shows the group(s) that a given user belongs to, or alternately, the users belonging to a given group. May be invoked only by root. root# lid bozo bozo(gid=500) root# lid daemon bin(gid=1) daemon(gid=2) adm(gid=4) lp(gid=7) who who command whoami Show all users logged on to the system. bash$ who bozo tty1 Apr 27 17:45 bozo pts/0 Apr 27 17:46 bozo pts/1 Apr 27 17:47 bozo pts/2 Apr 27 17:49 The gives detailed information about only the current user. Passing any two arguments to who is the equivalent of who -m, as in who am i or who The Man. bash$ who -m localhost.localdomain!bozo pts/2 Apr 27 17:49 whoami is similar to who -m, but only lists the user name. bash$ whoami bozo w w command w Show all logged on users and the processes belonging to them. This is an extended version of who. The output of w may be piped to grep to find a specific user and/or process. bash$ w | grep startx bozo tty1 - 4:22pm 6:41 4.47s 0.45s startx logname logname command logname Show current user's login name (as found in /var/run/utmp). This is a near-equivalent to whoami, above. bash$ logname bozo bash$ whoami bozo However . . . bash$ su Password: ...... bash# whoami root bash# logname bozo While logname prints the name of the logged in user, whoami gives the name of the user attached to the current process. As we have just seen, sometimes these are not the same. su su command su Runs a program or script as a substitute user. su rjones starts a shell as user rjones. A naked su defaults to root. See . sudo sudo command sudo Runs a command as root (or another user). This may be used in a script, thus permitting a regular user to run the script. #!/bin/bash # Some commands. sudo cp /root/secretfile /home/bozo/secret # Some more commands. The file /etc/sudoers holds the names of users permitted to invoke sudo. passwd passwd command password Sets, changes, or manages a user's password. The passwd command can be used in a script, but probably should not be. Setting a new password &setnewpw; The passwd command's , , and options permit locking, unlocking, and deleting a user's password. Only root may use these options. ac ac command accounting Show users' logged in time, as read from /var/log/wtmp. This is one of the GNU accounting utilities. bash$ ac total 68.08 last last command logged in List last logged in users, as read from /var/log/wtmp. This command can also show remote logins. For example, to show the last few times the system rebooted: bash$ last reboot reboot system boot 2.6.9-1.667 Fri Feb 4 18:18 (00:02) reboot system boot 2.6.9-1.667 Fri Feb 4 15:20 (01:27) reboot system boot 2.6.9-1.667 Fri Feb 4 12:56 (00:49) reboot system boot 2.6.9-1.667 Thu Feb 3 21:08 (02:17) . . . wtmp begins Tue Feb 1 12:50:09 2005 newgrp newgrp command group Change user's group ID without logging out. This permits access to the new group's files. Since users may be members of multiple groups simultaneously, this command finds only limited use. Kurt Glaesemann points out that the newgrp command could prove helpful in setting the default group permissions for files a user writes. However, the chgrp command might be more convenient for this purpose. <anchor id="terminalssys1">Terminals tty tty command tty Echoes the name (filename) of the current user's terminal. Note that each separate xterm window counts as a different terminal. bash$ tty /dev/pts/1 stty stty command stty Shows and/or changes terminal settings. This complex command, used in a script, can control terminal behavior and the way output displays. See the info page, and study it carefully. Setting an <firstterm>erase</firstterm> character &erase; <firstterm>secret password</firstterm>: Turning off terminal echoing &secretpw; A creative use of stty is detecting a user keypress (without hitting ENTER). Keypress detection &keypress; Also see and . terminals and modes Normally, a terminal works in the canonical mode. When a user hits a key, the resulting character does not immediately go to the program actually running in this terminal. A buffer local to the terminal stores keystrokes. When the user hits the ENTER key, this sends all the stored keystrokes to the program running. There is even a basic line editor inside the terminal. bash$ stty -a speed 9600 baud; rows 36; columns 96; line = 0; intr = ^C; quit = ^\; erase = ^H; kill = ^U; eof = ^D; eol = <undef>; eol2 = <undef>; start = ^Q; stop = ^S; susp = ^Z; rprnt = ^R; werase = ^W; lnext = ^V; flush = ^O; ... isig icanon iexten echo echoe echok -echonl -noflsh -xcase -tostop -echoprt Using canonical mode, it is possible to redefine the special keys for the local terminal line editor. bash$ cat > filexxx wha<ctl-W>I<ctl-H>foo bar<ctl-U>hello world<ENTER> <ctl-D> bash$ cat filexxx hello world bash$ wc -c < filexxx 12 The process controlling the terminal receives only 12 characters (11 alphabetic ones, plus a newline), although the user hit 26 keys. In non-canonical (raw) mode, every key hit (including special editing keys such as ctl-H) sends a character immediately to the controlling process. The Bash prompt disables both and , since it replaces the basic terminal line editor with its own more elaborate one. For example, when you hit ctl-A at the Bash prompt, there's no ^A echoed by the terminal, but Bash gets a \1 character, interprets it, and moves the cursor to the begining of the line. Stéphane Chazelas setterm setterm command terminal Set certain terminal attributes. This command writes to its terminal's stdout a string that changes the behavior of that terminal. bash$ setterm -cursor off bash$ The setterm command can be used within a script to change the appearance of text written to stdout, although there are certainly better tools available for this purpose. setterm -bold on echo bold hello setterm -bold off echo normal hello tset tset command tset Show or initialize terminal settings. This is a less capable version of stty. bash$ tset -r Terminal type is xterm-xfree86. Kill is control-U (^U). Interrupt is control-C (^C). setserial setserial command serial Set or display serial port parameters. This command must be run by root and is usually found in a system setup script. # From /etc/pcmcia/serial script: IRQ=`setserial /dev/$DEVICE | sed -e 's/.*IRQ: //'` setserial /dev/$DEVICE irq 0 ; setserial /dev/$DEVICE irq $IRQ getty agetty getty command getty agetty command agetty The initialization process for a terminal uses getty or agetty to set it up for login by a user. These commands are not used within user shell scripts. Their scripting counterpart is stty. mesg mesg command mesg Enables or disables write access to the current user's terminal. Disabling access would prevent another user on the network to write to the terminal. It can be quite annoying to have a message about ordering pizza suddenly appear in the middle of the text file you are editing. On a multi-user network, you might therefore wish to disable write access to your terminal when you need to avoid interruptions. wall wall command wall This is an acronym for write all, i.e., sending a message to all users at every terminal logged into the network. It is primarily a system administrator's tool, useful, for example, when warning everyone that the system will shortly go down due to a problem (see ). bash$ wall System going down for maintenance in 5 minutes! Broadcast message from bozo (pts/1) Sun Jul 8 13:53:27 2001... System going down for maintenance in 5 minutes! If write access to a particular terminal has been disabled with mesg, then wall cannot send a message to that terminal. <anchor id="statisticssys1">Information and Statistics uname uname command uname Output system specifications (OS, kernel version, etc.) to stdout. Invoked with the option, gives verbose system info (see ). The option shows only the OS type. bash$ uname Linux bash$ uname -s Linux bash$ uname -a Linux iron.bozo 2.6.15-1.2054_FC5 #1 Tue Mar 14 15:48:33 EST 2006 i686 i686 i386 GNU/Linux arch arch command arch Show system architecture. Equivalent to uname -m. See . bash$ arch i686 bash$ uname -m i686 lastcomm lastcomm command last Gives information about previous commands, as stored in the /var/account/pacct file. Command name and user name can be specified by options. This is one of the GNU accounting utilities. lastlog lastlog command last List the last login time of all system users. This references the /var/log/lastlog file. bash$ lastlog root tty1 Fri Dec 7 18:43:21 -0700 2001 bin **Never logged in** daemon **Never logged in** ... bozo tty1 Sat Dec 8 21:14:29 -0700 2001 bash$ lastlog | grep root root tty1 Fri Dec 7 18:43:21 -0700 2001 This command will fail if the user invoking it does not have read permission for the /var/log/lastlog file. lsof lsof command lsof List open files. This command outputs a detailed table of all currently open files and gives information about their owner, size, the processes associated with them, and more. Of course, lsof may be piped to grep and/or awk to parse and analyze its results. bash$ lsof COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME init 1 root mem REG 3,5 30748 30303 /sbin/init init 1 root mem REG 3,5 73120 8069 /lib/ld-2.1.3.so init 1 root mem REG 3,5 931668 8075 /lib/libc-2.1.3.so cardmgr 213 root mem REG 3,5 36956 30357 /sbin/cardmgr ... The lsof command is a useful, if complex administrative tool. If you are unable to dismount a filesystem and get an error message that it is still in use, then running lsof helps determine which files are still open on that filesystem. The option lists open network socket files, and this can help trace intrusion or hack attempts. bash$ lsof -an -i tcp COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME firefox 2330 bozo 32u IPv4 9956 TCP 66.0.118.137:57596->67.112.7.104:http ... firefox 2330 bozo 38u IPv4 10535 TCP 66.0.118.137:57708->216.79.48.24:http ... strace strace command trace System trace: diagnostic and debugging tool for tracing system calls and signals. This command and ltrace, following, are useful for diagnosing why a given program or package fails to run . . . perhaps due to missing libraries or related causes. bash$ strace df execve("/bin/df", ["df"], [/* 45 vars */]) = 0 uname({sys="Linux", node="bozo.localdomain", ...}) = 0 brk(0) = 0x804f5e4 ... This is the Linux equivalent of the Solaris truss command. ltrace ltrace command trace Library trace: diagnostic and debugging tool that traces library calls invoked by a given command. bash$ ltrace df __libc_start_main(0x804a910, 1, 0xbfb589a4, 0x804fb70, 0x804fb68 <unfinished ...>: setlocale(6, "") = "en_US.UTF-8" bindtextdomain("coreutils", "/usr/share/locale") = "/usr/share/locale" textdomain("coreutils") = "coreutils" __cxa_atexit(0x804b650, 0, 0, 0x8052bf0, 0xbfb58908) = 0 getenv("DF_BLOCK_SIZE") = NULL ... nmap nmap command port scan Network mapper and port scanner. This command scans a server to locate open ports and the services associated with those ports. It can also report information about packet filters and firewalls. This is an important security tool for locking down a network against hacking attempts. #!/bin/bash SERVER=$HOST # localhost.localdomain (127.0.0.1). PORT_NUMBER=25 # SMTP port. nmap $SERVER | grep -w "$PORT_NUMBER" # Is that particular port open? # grep -w matches whole words only, #+ so this wouldn't match port 1025, for example. exit 0 # 25/tcp open smtp nc nc command nc The nc (netcat) utility is a complete toolkit for connecting to and listening to TCP and UDP ports. It is useful as a diagnostic and testing tool and as a component in simple script-based HTTP clients and servers. bash$ nc localhost.localdomain 25 220 localhost.localdomain ESMTP Sendmail 8.13.1/8.13.1; Thu, 31 Mar 2005 15:41:35 -0700 Checking a remote server for <firstterm>identd</firstterm> &iscan; And, of course, there's Dr. Andrew Tridgell's notorious one-line script in the BitKeeper Affair: echo clone | nc thunk.org 5000 > e2fsprogs.dat free free command free Shows memory and cache usage in tabular form. The output of this command lends itself to parsing, using grep, awk or Perl. The procinfo command shows all the information that free does, and much more. bash$ free total used free shared buffers cached Mem: 30504 28624 1880 15820 1608 16376 -/+ buffers/cache: 10640 19864 Swap: 68540 3128 65412 To show unused RAM memory: bash$ free | grep Mem | awk '{ print $4 }' 1880 procinfo procinfo command procinfo Extract and list information and statistics from the /proc pseudo-filesystem. This gives a very extensive and detailed listing. bash$ procinfo | grep Bootup Bootup: Wed Mar 21 15:15:50 2001 Load average: 0.04 0.21 0.34 3/47 6829 lsdev lsdev command device List devices, that is, show installed hardware. bash$ lsdev Device DMA IRQ I/O Ports ------------------------------------------------ cascade 4 2 dma 0080-008f dma1 0000-001f dma2 00c0-00df fpu 00f0-00ff ide0 14 01f0-01f7 03f6-03f6 ... du du command du Show (disk) file usage, recursively. Defaults to current working directory, unless otherwise specified. bash$ du -ach 1.0k ./wi.sh 1.0k ./tst.sh 1.0k ./random.file 6.0k . 6.0k total df df command df Shows filesystem usage in tabular form. bash$ df Filesystem 1k-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on /dev/hda5 273262 92607 166547 36% / /dev/hda8 222525 123951 87085 59% /home /dev/hda7 1408796 1075744 261488 80% /usr dmesg dmesg command dmesg Lists all system bootup messages to stdout. Handy for debugging and ascertaining which device drivers were installed and which system interrupts in use. The output of dmesg may, of course, be parsed with grep, sed, or awk from within a script. bash$ dmesg | grep hda Kernel command line: ro root=/dev/hda2 hda: IBM-DLGA-23080, ATA DISK drive hda: 6015744 sectors (3080 MB) w/96KiB Cache, CHS=746/128/63 hda: hda1 hda2 hda3 < hda5 hda6 hda7 > hda4 stat stat command stat Gives detailed and verbose statistics on a given file (even a directory or device file) or set of files. bash$ stat test.cru File: "test.cru" Size: 49970 Allocated Blocks: 100 Filetype: Regular File Mode: (0664/-rw-rw-r--) Uid: ( 501/ bozo) Gid: ( 501/ bozo) Device: 3,8 Inode: 18185 Links: 1 Access: Sat Jun 2 16:40:24 2001 Modify: Sat Jun 2 16:40:24 2001 Change: Sat Jun 2 16:40:24 2001 If the target file does not exist, stat returns an error message. bash$ stat nonexistent-file nonexistent-file: No such file or directory In a script, you can use stat to extract information about files (and filesystems) and set variables accordingly. #!/bin/bash # fileinfo2.sh # Per suggestion of Joël Bourquard and . . . # http://www.linuxquestions.org/questions/showthread.php?t=410766 FILENAME=testfile.txt file_name=$(stat -c%n "$FILENAME") # Same as "$FILENAME" of course. file_owner=$(stat -c%U "$FILENAME") file_size=$(stat -c%s "$FILENAME") # Certainly easier than using "ls -l $FILENAME" #+ and then parsing with sed. file_inode=$(stat -c%i "$FILENAME") file_type=$(stat -c%F "$FILENAME") file_access_rights=$(stat -c%A "$FILENAME") echo "File name: $file_name" echo "File owner: $file_owner" echo "File size: $file_size" echo "File inode: $file_inode" echo "File type: $file_type" echo "File access rights: $file_access_rights" exit 0 sh fileinfo2.sh File name: testfile.txt File owner: bozo File size: 418 File inode: 1730378 File type: regular file File access rights: -rw-rw-r-- vmstat vmstat command virtual memory Display virtual memory statistics. bash$ vmstat procs memory swap io system cpu r b w swpd free buff cache si so bi bo in cs us sy id 0 0 0 0 11040 2636 38952 0 0 33 7 271 88 8 3 89 netstat netstat command netstat Show current network statistics and information, such as routing tables and active connections. This utility accesses information in /proc/net (). See . netstat -r is equivalent to route. bash$ netstat Active Internet connections (w/o servers) Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State Active UNIX domain sockets (w/o servers) Proto RefCnt Flags Type State I-Node Path unix 11 [ ] DGRAM 906 /dev/log unix 3 [ ] STREAM CONNECTED 4514 /tmp/.X11-unix/X0 unix 3 [ ] STREAM CONNECTED 4513 . . . A netstat -lptu shows sockets that are listening to ports, and the associated processes. This can be useful for determining whether a computer has been hacked or compromised. uptime uptime command uptime Shows how long the system has been running, along with associated statistics. bash$ uptime 10:28pm up 1:57, 3 users, load average: 0.17, 0.34, 0.27 A load average of 1 or less indicates that the system handles processes immediately. A load average greater than 1 means that processes are being queued. When the load average gets above 3, then system performance is significantly degraded. hostname hostname command hostname Lists the system's host name. This command sets the host name in an /etc/rc.d setup script (/etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit or similar). It is equivalent to uname -n, and a counterpart to the $HOSTNAME internal variable. bash$ hostname localhost.localdomain bash$ echo $HOSTNAME localhost.localdomain Similar to the hostname command are the domainname, dnsdomainname, nisdomainname, and ypdomainname commands. Use these to display or set the system DNS or NIS/YP domain name. Various options to hostname also perform these functions. hostid hostid command host id Echo a 32-bit hexadecimal numerical identifier for the host machine. bash$ hostid 7f0100 This command allegedly fetches a unique serial number for a particular system. Certain product registration procedures use this number to brand a particular user license. Unfortunately, hostid only returns the machine network address in hexadecimal, with pairs of bytes transposed. The network address of a typical non-networked Linux machine, is found in /etc/hosts. bash$ cat /etc/hosts 127.0.0.1 localhost.localdomain localhost As it happens, transposing the bytes of 127.0.0.1, we get 0.127.1.0, which translates in hex to 007f0100, the exact equivalent of what hostid returns, above. There exist only a few million other Linux machines with this identical hostid. sar sar command system activity report Invoking sar (System Activity Reporter) gives a very detailed rundown on system statistics. The Santa Cruz Operation (Old SCO) released sar as Open Source in June, 1999. This command is not part of the base Linux distribution, but may be obtained as part of the sysstat utilities package, written by Sebastien Godard. bash$ sar Linux 2.4.9 (brooks.seringas.fr) 09/26/03 10:30:00 CPU %user %nice %system %iowait %idle 10:40:00 all 2.21 10.90 65.48 0.00 21.41 10:50:00 all 3.36 0.00 72.36 0.00 24.28 11:00:00 all 1.12 0.00 80.77 0.00 18.11 Average: all 2.23 3.63 72.87 0.00 21.27 14:32:30 LINUX RESTART 15:00:00 CPU %user %nice %system %iowait %idle 15:10:00 all 8.59 2.40 17.47 0.00 71.54 15:20:00 all 4.07 1.00 11.95 0.00 82.98 15:30:00 all 0.79 2.94 7.56 0.00 88.71 Average: all 6.33 1.70 14.71 0.00 77.26 readelf elf command statistics Show information and statistics about a designated elf binary. This is part of the binutils package. bash$ readelf -h /bin/bash ELF Header: Magic: 7f 45 4c 46 01 01 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Class: ELF32 Data: 2's complement, little endian Version: 1 (current) OS/ABI: UNIX - System V ABI Version: 0 Type: EXEC (Executable file) . . . size size command segment The size [/path/to/binary] command gives the segment sizes of a binary executable or archive file. This is mainly of use to programmers. bash$ size /bin/bash text data bss dec hex filename 495971 22496 17392 535859 82d33 /bin/bash <anchor id="syslog1">System Logs logger logger command logger Appends a user-generated message to the system log (/var/log/messages). You do not have to be root to invoke logger. logger Experiencing instability in network connection at 23:10, 05/21. # Now, do a 'tail /var/log/messages'. By embedding a logger command in a script, it is possible to write debugging information to /var/log/messages. logger -t $0 -i Logging at line "$LINENO". # The "-t" option specifies the tag for the logger entry. # The "-i" option records the process ID. # tail /var/log/message # ... # Jul 7 20:48:58 localhost ./test.sh[1712]: Logging at line 3. logrotate logrotate command logrotate This utility manages the system log files, rotating, compressing, deleting, and/or e-mailing them, as appropriate. This keeps the /var/log from getting cluttered with old log files. Usually cron runs logrotate on a daily basis. Adding an appropriate entry to /etc/logrotate.conf makes it possible to manage personal log files, as well as system-wide ones. Stefano Falsetto has created rottlog, which he considers to be an improved version of logrotate. <anchor id="jobcontrolsys1">Job Control ps ps command ps Process Statistics: lists currently executing processes by owner and PID (process ID). This is usually invoked with or options, and may be piped to grep or sed to search for a specific process (see and ). bash$ ps ax | grep sendmail 295 ? S 0:00 sendmail: accepting connections on port 25 To display system processes in graphical tree format: ps afjx or ps ax --forest. pgrep pkill pgrep command process grep pkill command process kill Combining the ps command with grep or kill. bash$ ps a | grep mingetty 2212 tty2 Ss+ 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty2 2213 tty3 Ss+ 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty3 2214 tty4 Ss+ 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty4 2215 tty5 Ss+ 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty5 2216 tty6 Ss+ 0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty6 4849 pts/2 S+ 0:00 grep mingetty bash$ pgrep mingetty 2212 mingetty 2213 mingetty 2214 mingetty 2215 mingetty 2216 mingetty Compare the action of pkill with killall. pstree pstree command pstree Lists currently executing processes in tree format. The option shows the PIDs, as well as the process names. top top command processes Continuously updated display of most cpu-intensive processes. The option displays in text mode, so that the output may be parsed or accessed from a script. bash$ top -b 8:30pm up 3 min, 3 users, load average: 0.49, 0.32, 0.13 45 processes: 44 sleeping, 1 running, 0 zombie, 0 stopped CPU states: 13.6% user, 7.3% system, 0.0% nice, 78.9% idle Mem: 78396K av, 65468K used, 12928K free, 0K shrd, 2352K buff Swap: 157208K av, 0K used, 157208K free 37244K cached PID USER PRI NI SIZE RSS SHARE STAT %CPU %MEM TIME COMMAND 848 bozo 17 0 996 996 800 R 5.6 1.2 0:00 top 1 root 8 0 512 512 444 S 0.0 0.6 0:04 init 2 root 9 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 keventd ... nice nice command nice Run a background job with an altered priority. Priorities run from 19 (lowest) to -20 (highest). Only root may set the negative (higher) priorities. Related commands are renice and snice, which change the priority of a running process or processes, and skill, which sends a kill signal to a process or processes. nohup nohup command nohup Keeps a command running even after user logs off. The command will run as a foreground process unless followed by &. If you use nohup within a script, consider coupling it with a wait to avoid creating an orphan or zombie process. pidof pidof command process ID Identifies process ID (PID) of a running job. Since job control commands, such as kill and renice act on the PID of a process (not its name), it is sometimes necessary to identify that PID. The pidof command is the approximate counterpart to the $PPID internal variable. bash$ pidof xclock 880 <firstterm>pidof</firstterm> helps kill a process &killprocess; fuser fuser command fuser Identifies the processes (by PID) that are accessing a given file, set of files, or directory. May also be invoked with the option, which kills those processes. This has interesting implications for system security, especially in scripts preventing unauthorized users from accessing system services. bash$ fuser -u /usr/bin/vim /usr/bin/vim: 3207e(bozo) bash$ fuser -u /dev/null /dev/null: 3009(bozo) 3010(bozo) 3197(bozo) 3199(bozo) One important application for fuser is when physically inserting or removing storage media, such as CD ROM disks or USB flash drives. Sometimes trying a umount fails with a device is busy error message. This means that some user(s) and/or process(es) are accessing the device. An fuser -um /dev/device_name will clear up the mystery, so you can kill any relevant processes. bash$ umount /mnt/usbdrive umount: /mnt/usbdrive: device is busy bash$ fuser -um /dev/usbdrive /mnt/usbdrive: 1772c(bozo) bash$ kill -9 1772 bash$ umount /mnt/usbdrive The fuser command, invoked with the option identifies the processes accessing a port. This is especially useful in combination with nmap. root# nmap localhost.localdomain PORT STATE SERVICE 25/tcp open smtp root# fuser -un tcp 25 25/tcp: 2095(root) root# ps ax | grep 2095 | grep -v grep 2095 ? Ss 0:00 sendmail: accepting connections cron cron command crond Administrative program scheduler, performing such duties as cleaning up and deleting system log files and updating the slocate database. This is the superuser version of at (although each user may have their own crontab file which can be changed with the crontab command). It runs as a daemon and executes scheduled entries from /etc/crontab. Some flavors of Linux run crond, Matthew Dillon's version of cron. <anchor id="runcontrolsys1">Process Control and Booting init init command init The init command is the parent of all processes. Called in the final step of a bootup, init determines the runlevel of the system from /etc/inittab. Invoked by its alias telinit, and by root only. telinit telinit command telinit Symlinked to init, this is a means of changing the system runlevel, usually done for system maintenance or emergency filesystem repairs. Invoked only by root. This command can be dangerous -- be certain you understand it well before using! runlevel runlevel command runlevel Shows the current and last runlevel, that is, whether the system is halted (runlevel 0), in single-user mode (1), in multi-user mode (2 or 3), in X Windows (5), or rebooting (6). This command accesses the /var/run/utmp file. halt shutdown reboot halt command halt shutdown command shutdown reboot command reboot Command set to shut the system down, usually just prior to a power down. On some Linux distros, the halt command has 755 permissions, so it can be invoked by a non-root user. A careless halt in a terminal or a script may shut down the system! service service command service Starts or stops a system service. The startup scripts in /etc/init.d and /etc/rc.d use this command to start services at bootup. root# /sbin/service iptables stop Flushing firewall rules: [ OK ] Setting chains to policy ACCEPT: filter [ OK ] Unloading iptables modules: [ OK ] <anchor id="networksys1">Network ifconfig ifconfig command ifconfig Network interface configuration and tuning utility. bash$ ifconfig -a lo Link encap:Local Loopback inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0 UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1 RX packets:10 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 TX packets:10 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 collisions:0 txqueuelen:0 RX bytes:700 (700.0 b) TX bytes:700 (700.0 b) The ifconfig command is most often used at bootup to set up the interfaces, or to shut them down when rebooting. # Code snippets from /etc/rc.d/init.d/network # ... # Check that networking is up. [ ${NETWORKING} = "no" ] && exit 0 [ -x /sbin/ifconfig ] || exit 0 # ... for i in $interfaces ; do if ifconfig $i 2>/dev/null | grep -q "UP" >/dev/null 2>&1 ; then action "Shutting down interface $i: " ./ifdown $i boot fi # The GNU-specific "-q" option to "grep" means "quiet", i.e., #+ producing no output. # Redirecting output to /dev/null is therefore not strictly necessary. # ... echo "Currently active devices:" echo `/sbin/ifconfig | grep ^[a-z] | awk '{print $1}'` # ^^^^^ should be quoted to prevent globbing. # The following also work. # echo $(/sbin/ifconfig | awk '/^[a-z]/ { print $1 })' # echo $(/sbin/ifconfig | sed -e 's/ .*//') # Thanks, S.C., for additional comments. See also . iwconfig iwconfig command wireless This is the command set for configuring a wireless network. It is the wireless equivalent of ifconfig, above. ip ip command routing General purpose utility for setting up, changing, and analyzing IP (Internet Protocol) networks and attached devices. This command is part of the iproute2 package. bash$ ip link show 1: lo: <LOOPBACK,UP> mtu 16436 qdisc noqueue link/loopback 00:00:00:00:00:00 brd 00:00:00:00:00:00 2: eth0: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 qdisc pfifo_fast qlen 1000 link/ether 00:d0:59:ce:af:da brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff 3: sit0: <NOARP> mtu 1480 qdisc noop link/sit 0.0.0.0 brd 0.0.0.0 bash$ ip route list 169.254.0.0/16 dev lo scope link Or, in a script: &ipscript; route route command route Show info about or make changes to the kernel routing table. bash$ route Destination Gateway Genmask Flags MSS Window irtt Iface pm3-67.bozosisp * 255.255.255.255 UH 40 0 0 ppp0 127.0.0.0 * 255.0.0.0 U 40 0 0 lo default pm3-67.bozosisp 0.0.0.0 UG 40 0 0 ppp0 chkconfig chkconfig command network configuration Check network and system configuration. This command lists and manages the network and system services started at bootup in the /etc/rc?.d directory. Originally a port from IRIX to Red Hat Linux, chkconfig may not be part of the core installation of some Linux flavors. bash$ chkconfig --list atd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:on 5:on 6:off rwhod 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off ... tcpdump tcpdump command tcp Network packet sniffer. This is a tool for analyzing and troubleshooting traffic on a network by dumping packet headers that match specified criteria. Dump ip packet traffic between hosts bozoville and caduceus: bash$ tcpdump ip host bozoville and caduceus Of course, the output of tcpdump can be parsed with certain of the previously discussed text processing utilities. <anchor id="filesystemsys1">Filesystem mount mount command mount Mount a filesystem, usually on an external device, such as a floppy or CDROM. The file /etc/fstab provides a handy listing of available filesystems, partitions, and devices, including options, that may be automatically or manually mounted. The file /etc/mtab shows the currently mounted filesystems and partitions (including the virtual ones, such as /proc). mount -a mounts all filesystems and partitions listed in /etc/fstab, except those with a option. At bootup, a startup script in /etc/rc.d (rc.sysinit or something similar) invokes this to get everything mounted. mount -t iso9660 /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom # Mounts CD ROM. ISO 9660 is a standard CD ROM filesystem. mount /mnt/cdrom # Shortcut, if /mnt/cdrom listed in /etc/fstab The versatile mount command can even mount an ordinary file on a block device, and the file will act as if it were a filesystem. Mount accomplishes that by associating the file with a loopback device. One application of this is to mount and examine an ISO9660 filesystem image before burning it onto a CDR. For more detail on burning CDRs, see Alex Withers' article, Creating CDs, in the October, 1999 issue of Linux Journal. Checking a CD image # As root... mkdir /mnt/cdtest # Prepare a mount point, if not already there. mount -r -t iso9660 -o loop cd-image.iso /mnt/cdtest # Mount the image. # "-o loop" option equivalent to "losetup /dev/loop0" cd /mnt/cdtest # Now, check the image. ls -alR # List the files in the directory tree there. # And so forth. umount umount command umount Unmount a currently mounted filesystem. Before physically removing a previously mounted floppy or CDROM disk, the device must be umounted, else filesystem corruption may result. umount /mnt/cdrom # You may now press the eject button and safely remove the disk. The automount utility, if properly installed, can mount and unmount floppies or CDROM disks as they are accessed or removed. On multispindle laptops with swappable floppy and optical drives, this can cause problems, however. gnome-mount gnome-mount command mount The newer Linux distros have deprecated mount and umount. The successor, for command-line mounting of removable storage devices, is gnome-mount. It can take the option to mount a device file by its listing in /dev. For example, to mount a USB flash drive: bash$ gnome-mount -d /dev/sda1 gnome-mount 0.4 bash$ df . . . /dev/sda1 63584 12034 51550 19% /media/disk sync sync command sync Forces an immediate write of all updated data from buffers to hard drive (synchronize drive with buffers). While not strictly necessary, a sync assures the sys admin or user that the data just changed will survive a sudden power failure. In the olden days, a sync; sync (twice, just to make absolutely sure) was a useful precautionary measure before a system reboot. At times, you may wish to force an immediate buffer flush, as when securely deleting a file (see ) or when the lights begin to flicker. losetup losetup command losetup Sets up and configures loopback devices. Creating a filesystem in a file SIZE=1000000 # 1 meg head -c $SIZE < /dev/zero > file # Set up file of designated size. losetup /dev/loop0 file # Set it up as loopback device. mke2fs /dev/loop0 # Create filesystem. mount -o loop /dev/loop0 /mnt # Mount it. # Thanks, S.C. mkswap mkswap command mkswap Creates a swap partition or file. The swap area must subsequently be enabled with swapon. swapon swapoff swapon command swapon swapoff command swapoff Enable / disable swap partitition or file. These commands usually take effect at bootup and shutdown. mke2fs mke2fs command mke2fs Create a Linux ext2 filesystem. This command must be invoked as root. Adding a new hard drive &adddrv; See also and . tune2fs tune2fs command tune2fs Tune ext2 filesystem. May be used to change filesystem parameters, such as maximum mount count. This must be invoked as root. This is an extremely dangerous command. Use it at your own risk, as you may inadvertently destroy your filesystem. dumpe2fs dumpe2fs command dumpe2fs Dump (list to stdout) very verbose filesystem info. This must be invoked as root. root# dumpe2fs /dev/hda7 | grep 'ount count' dumpe2fs 1.19, 13-Jul-2000 for EXT2 FS 0.5b, 95/08/09 Mount count: 6 Maximum mount count: 20 hdparm hdparm command hard disk parameters List or change hard disk parameters. This command must be invoked as root, and it may be dangerous if misused. fdisk fdisk command fdisk Create or change a partition table on a storage device, usually a hard drive. This command must be invoked as root. Use this command with extreme caution. If something goes wrong, you may destroy an existing filesystem. fsck e2fsck debugfs fsck command fsck e2fsck command e2fsck debugfs command debugfs Filesystem check, repair, and debug command set. fsck: a front end for checking a UNIX filesystem (may invoke other utilities). The actual filesystem type generally defaults to ext2. e2fsck: ext2 filesystem checker. debugfs: ext2 filesystem debugger. One of the uses of this versatile, but dangerous command is to (attempt to) recover deleted files. For advanced users only! All of these should be invoked as root, and they can damage or destroy a filesystem if misused. badblocks badblocks command badblocks Checks for bad blocks (physical media flaws) on a storage device. This command finds use when formatting a newly installed hard drive or testing the integrity of backup media. The option to mke2fs also invokes a check for bad blocks. As an example, badblocks /dev/fd0 tests a floppy disk. The badblocks command may be invoked destructively (overwrite all data) or in non-destructive read-only mode. If root user owns the device to be tested, as is generally the case, then root must invoke this command. lsusb usbmodules lsusb command usb usbmodules command usb The lsusb command lists all USB (Universal Serial Bus) buses and the devices hooked up to them. The usbmodules command outputs information about the driver modules for connected USB devices. bash$ lsusb Bus 001 Device 001: ID 0000:0000 Device Descriptor: bLength 18 bDescriptorType 1 bcdUSB 1.00 bDeviceClass 9 Hub bDeviceSubClass 0 bDeviceProtocol 0 bMaxPacketSize0 8 idVendor 0x0000 idProduct 0x0000 . . . lspci lspci command pci Lists pci busses present. bash$ lspci 00:00.0 Host bridge: Intel Corporation 82845 845 (Brookdale) Chipset Host Bridge (rev 04) 00:01.0 PCI bridge: Intel Corporation 82845 845 (Brookdale) Chipset AGP Bridge (rev 04) 00:1d.0 USB Controller: Intel Corporation 82801CA/CAM USB (Hub #1) (rev 02) 00:1d.1 USB Controller: Intel Corporation 82801CA/CAM USB (Hub #2) (rev 02) 00:1d.2 USB Controller: Intel Corporation 82801CA/CAM USB (Hub #3) (rev 02) 00:1e.0 PCI bridge: Intel Corporation 82801 Mobile PCI Bridge (rev 42) . . . mkbootdisk mkbootdisk command bootdisk Creates a boot floppy which can be used to bring up the system if, for example, the MBR (master boot record) becomes corrupted. Of special interest is the option, which uses mkisofs to create a bootable ISO9660 filesystem image suitable for burning a bootable CDR. The mkbootdisk command is actually a Bash script, written by Erik Troan, in the /sbin directory. mkisofs mkisofs command ISO9660 Creates an ISO9660 filesystem suitable for a CDR image. chroot chroot command chroot directory root change CHange ROOT directory. Normally commands are fetched from $PATH, relative to /, the default root directory. This changes the root directory to a different one (and also changes the working directory to there). This is useful for security purposes, for instance when the system administrator wishes to restrict certain users, such as those telnetting in, to a secured portion of the filesystem (this is sometimes referred to as confining a guest user to a chroot jail). Note that after a chroot, the execution path for system binaries is no longer valid. A chroot /opt would cause references to /usr/bin to be translated to /opt/usr/bin. Likewise, chroot /aaa/bbb /bin/ls would redirect future instances of ls to /aaa/bbb as the base directory, rather than / as is normally the case. An alias XX 'chroot /aaa/bbb ls' in a user's ~/.bashrc effectively restricts which portion of the filesystem she may run command XX on. The chroot command is also handy when running from an emergency boot floppy (chroot to /dev/fd0), or as an option to lilo when recovering from a system crash. Other uses include installation from a different filesystem (an rpm option) or running a readonly filesystem from a CD ROM. Invoke only as root, and use with care. It might be necessary to copy certain system files to a chrooted directory, since the normal $PATH can no longer be relied upon. lockfile lockfile command lockfile This utility is part of the procmail package (www.procmail.org). It creates a lock file, a semaphore Definition: A semaphore is a flag or signal. (The usage originated in railroading, where a colored flag, lantern, or striped movable arm semaphore indicated whether a particular track was in use and therefore unavailable for another train.) A UNIX process can check the appropriate semaphore to determine whether a particular resource is available/accessible. file that controls access to a file, device, or resource. The lock file serves as a flag that this particular file, device, or resource is in use by a process (it is busy), and this permits only restricted access (or no access) to other processes. lockfile /home/bozo/lockfiles/$0.lock # Creates a write-protected lockfile prefixed with the name of the script. lockfile /home/bozo/lockfiles/${0##*/}.lock # A safer version of the above, as pointed out by E. Choroba. Lock files are used in such applications as protecting system mail folders from simultaneously being changed by multiple users, indicating that a modem port is being accessed, and showing that an instance of Netscape is using its cache. Scripts may check for the existence of a lock file created by a certain process to check if that process is running. Note that if a script attempts to create a lock file that already exists, the script will likely hang. Normally, applications create and check for lock files in the /var/lock directory. Since only root has write permission in the /var/lock directory, a user script cannot set a lock file there. A script can test for the presence of a lock file by something like the following. appname=xyzip # Application "xyzip" created lock file "/var/lock/xyzip.lock". if [ -e "/var/lock/$appname.lock" ] then #+ Prevent other programs & scripts # from accessing files/resources used by xyzip. ... flock flock command lock file Much less useful than the lockfile command is flock. It sets an advisory lock on a file and then executes a command while the lock is on. This is to prevent any other process from setting a lock on that file until completion of the specified command. flock $0 cat $0 > lockfile__$0 # Set a lock on the script the above line appears in, #+ while listing the script to stdout. Unlike lockfile, flock does not automatically create a lock file. mknod mknod command mknod Creates block or character device files (may be necessary when installing new hardware on the system). The MAKEDEV utility has virtually all of the functionality of mknod, and is easier to use. MAKEDEV MAKEDEV command make device file Utility for creating device files. It must be run as root, and in the /dev directory. It is a sort of advanced version of mknod. tmpwatch tmpwatch command tmpwatch Automatically deletes files which have not been accessed within a specified period of time. Usually invoked by cron to remove stale log files. <anchor id="periphsys1">Backup dump restore dump command dump restore command restore The dump command is an elaborate filesystem backup utility, generally used on larger installations and networks. Operators of single-user Linux systems generally prefer something simpler for backups, such as tar. It reads raw disk partitions and writes a backup file in a binary format. Files to be backed up may be saved to a variety of storage media, including disks and tape drives. The restore command restores backups made with dump. fdformat fdformat command floppy Perform a low-level format on a floppy disk (/dev/fd0*). <anchor id="sysresources1">System Resources ulimit ulimit command ulimit Sets an upper limit on use of system resources. Usually invoked with the option, which sets a limit on file size (ulimit -f 1000 limits files to 1 meg maximum). The option limits the coredump size (ulimit -c 0 eliminates coredumps). Normally, the value of ulimit would be set in /etc/profile and/or ~/.bash_profile (see ). Judicious use of ulimit can protect a system against the dreaded fork bomb. #!/bin/bash # This script is for illustrative purposes only. # Run it at your own peril -- it WILL freeze your system. while true # Endless loop. do $0 & # This script invokes itself . . . #+ forks an infinite number of times . . . #+ until the system freezes up because all resources exhausted. done # This is the notorious sorcerer's appentice scenario. exit 0 # Will not exit here, because this script will never terminate. A ulimit -Hu XX (where XX is the user process limit) in /etc/profile would abort this script when it exceeded the preset limit. quota quota command quota Display user or group disk quotas. setquota setquota command quota Set user or group disk quotas from the command line. umask command umask umask User file creation permissions mask. Limit the default file attributes for a particular user. All files created by that user take on the attributes specified by umask. The (octal) value passed to umask defines the file permissions disabled. For example, umask 022 ensures that new files will have at most 755 permissions (777 NAND 022). NAND is the logical not-and operator. Its effect is somewhat similar to subtraction. Of course, the user may later change the attributes of particular files with chmod. The usual practice is to set the value of umask in /etc/profile and/or ~/.bash_profile (see ). Using <firstterm>umask</firstterm> to hide an output file from prying eyes &rot13a; rdev rdev command rdev Get info about or make changes to root device, swap space, or video mode. The functionality of rdev has generally been taken over by lilo, but rdev remains useful for setting up a ram disk. This is a dangerous command, if misused. <anchor id="modulessys1">Modules lsmod lsmod command loadable modules List installed kernel modules. bash$ lsmod Module Size Used by autofs 9456 2 (autoclean) opl3 11376 0 serial_cs 5456 0 (unused) sb 34752 0 uart401 6384 0 [sb] sound 58368 0 [opl3 sb uart401] soundlow 464 0 [sound] soundcore 2800 6 [sb sound] ds 6448 2 [serial_cs] i82365 22928 2 pcmcia_core 45984 0 [serial_cs ds i82365] Doing a cat /proc/modules gives the same information. insmod insmod command loadable modules Force installation of a kernel module (use modprobe instead, when possible). Must be invoked as root. rmmod rmmod command loadable modules Force unloading of a kernel module. Must be invoked as root. modprobe modprobe command loadable modules Module loader that is normally invoked automatically in a startup script. Must be invoked as root. depmod depmod command loadable modules Creates module dependency file. Usually invoked from a startup script. modinfo modinfo command loadable modules Output information about a loadable module. bash$ modinfo hid filename: /lib/modules/2.4.20-6/kernel/drivers/usb/hid.o description: "USB HID support drivers" author: "Andreas Gal, Vojtech Pavlik <vojtech@suse.cz>" license: "GPL" <anchor id="miscsys1">Miscellaneous env env command env Runs a program or script with certain environmental variables set or changed (without changing the overall system environment). The permits changing the environmental variable varname for the duration of the script. With no options specified, this command lists all the environmental variable settings. In Bash and other Bourne shell derivatives, it is possible to set variables in a single command's environment. var1=value1 var2=value2 commandXXX # $var1 and $var2 set in the environment of 'commandXXX' only. The first line of a script (the sha-bang line) may use env when the path to the shell or interpreter is unknown. #! /usr/bin/env perl print "This Perl script will run,\n"; print "even when I don't know where to find Perl.\n"; # Good for portable cross-platform scripts, # where the Perl binaries may not be in the expected place. # Thanks, S.C. Or even ... #!/bin/env bash # Queries the $PATH enviromental variable for the location of bash. # Therefore ... # This script will run where Bash is not in its usual place, in /bin. ... ldd ldd command ldd Show shared lib dependencies for an executable file. bash$ ldd /bin/ls libc.so.6 => /lib/libc.so.6 (0x4000c000) /lib/ld-linux.so.2 => /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x80000000) watch watch command periodic Run a command repeatedly, at specified time intervals. The default is two-second intervals, but this may be changed with the option. watch -n 5 tail /var/log/messages # Shows tail end of system log, /var/log/messages, every five seconds. Unfortunately, piping the output of watch command to grep does not work. strip strip command symbol Remove the debugging symbolic references from an executable binary. This decreases its size, but makes debugging it impossible. This command often occurs in a Makefile, but rarely in a shell script. nm nm command symbol List symbols in an unstripped compiled binary. rdist rdist command rdist Remote distribution client: synchronizes, clones, or backs up a file system on a remote server. Analyzing a System Script Using our knowledge of administrative commands, let us examine a system script. One of the shortest and simplest to understand scripts is killall, The killall system script should not be confused with the killall command in /usr/bin. used to suspend running processes at system shutdown. <firstterm>killall</firstterm>, from <filename class="directory">/etc/rc.d/init.d</filename> &ex55; That wasn't so bad. Aside from a little fancy footwork with variable matching, there is no new material there. Exercise 1 In /etc/rc.d/init.d, analyze the halt script. It is a bit longer than killall, but similar in concept. Make a copy of this script somewhere in your home directory and experiment with it (do not run it as root). Do a simulated run with the flags (sh -vn scriptname). Add extensive comments. Change the action commands to echos. Exercise 2 Look at some of the more complex scripts in /etc/rc.d/init.d. See if you can understand parts of them. Follow the above procedure to analyze them. For some additional insight, you might also examine the file sysvinitfiles in /usr/share/doc/initscripts-?.??, which is part of the initscripts documentation. Advanced Topics At this point, we are ready to delve into certain of the difficult and unusual aspects of scripting. Along the way, we will attempt to push the envelope in various ways and examine boundary conditions (what happens when we move into uncharted territory?). Regular Expressions . . . the intellectual activity associated with software development is largely one of gaining insight. --Stowe Boyd To fully utilize the power of shell scripting, you need to master Regular Expressions. Certain commands and utilities commonly used in scripts, such as grep, expr, sed and awk, interpret and use REs. As of version 3, Bash has acquired its own RE-match operator: =~. A Brief Introduction to Regular Expressions An expression is a string of characters. Those characters having an interpretation above and beyond their literal meaning are called metacharacters. A quote symbol, for example, may denote speech by a person, ditto, or a meta-meaning A meta-meaning is the meaning of a term or expression on a higher level of abstraction. For example, the literal meaning of regular expression is an ordinary expression that conforms to accepted usage. The meta-meaning is drastically different, as discussed at length in this chapter. for the symbols that follow. Regular Expressions are sets of characters and/or metacharacters that match (or specify) patterns. A Regular Expression contains one or more of the following: A character set. These are the characters retaining their literal meaning. The simplest type of Regular Expression consists only of a character set, with no metacharacters. An anchor. These designate (anchor) the position in the line of text that the RE is to match. For example, ^, and $ are anchors. Modifiers. These expand or narrow (modify) the range of text the RE is to match. Modifiers include the asterisk, brackets, and the backslash. The main uses for Regular Expressions (REs) are text searches and string manipulation. An RE matches a single character or a set of characters -- a string or a part of a string. * special character * The asterisk -- * -- matches any number of repeats of the character string or RE preceding it, including zero instances. 1133* matches 11 + one or more 3's: 113, 1133, 1133333, and so forth. . special character . The dot -- . -- matches any one character, except a newline. Since sed, awk, and grep process single lines, there will usually not be a newline to match. In those cases where there is a newline in a multiple line expression, the dot will match the newline. #!/bin/bash sed -e 'N;s/.*/[&]/' << EOF # Here Document line1 line2 EOF # OUTPUT: # [line1 # line2] echo awk '{ $0=$1 "\n" $2; if (/line.1/) {print}}' << EOF line 1 line 2 EOF # OUTPUT: # line # 1 # Thanks, S.C. exit 0 13. matches 13 + at least one of any character (including a space): 1133, 11333, but not 13 (additional character missing). See for a demonstration of dot single-character matching. ^ special character ^ The caret -- ^ -- matches the beginning of a line, but sometimes, depending on context, negates the meaning of a set of characters in an RE. $ special character $ The dollar sign -- $ -- at the end of an RE matches the end of a line. XXX$ matches XXX at the end of a line. ^$ matches blank lines. [...] special character [...] Brackets -- [...] -- enclose a set of characters to match in a single RE. [xyz] matches any one of the characters x, y, or z. [c-n] matches any one of the characters in the range c to n. [B-Pk-y] matches any one of the characters in the ranges B to P and k to y. [a-z0-9] matches any single lowercase letter or any digit. [^b-d] matches any character except those in the range b to d. This is an instance of ^ negating or inverting the meaning of the following RE (taking on a role similar to ! in a different context). Combined sequences of bracketed characters match common word patterns. [Yy][Ee][Ss] matches yes, Yes, YES, yEs, and so forth. [0-9][0-9][0-9]-[0-9][0-9]-[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9] matches any Social Security number. \ special character \ The backslash -- \ -- escapes a special character, which means that character gets interpreted literally (and is therefore no longer special). A \$ reverts back to its literal meaning of $, rather than its RE meaning of end-of-line. Likewise a \\ has the literal meaning of \. \< \> special character \< \> Escaped angle brackets -- \<...\> -- mark word boundaries. The angle brackets must be escaped, since otherwise they have only their literal character meaning. \<the\> matches the word the, but not the words them, there, other, etc. bash$ cat textfile This is line 1, of which there is only one instance. This is the only instance of line 2. This is line 3, another line. This is line 4. bash$ grep 'the' textfile This is line 1, of which there is only one instance. This is the only instance of line 2. This is line 3, another line. bash$ grep '\<the\>' textfile This is the only instance of line 2. The only way to be certain that a particular RE works is to test it. TEST FILE: tstfile # No match. # No match. Run grep "1133*" on this file. # Match. # No match. # No match. This line contains the number 113. # Match. This line contains the number 13. # No match. This line contains the number 133. # No match. This line contains the number 1133. # Match. This line contains the number 113312. # Match. This line contains the number 1112. # No match. This line contains the number 113312312. # Match. This line contains no numbers at all. # No match. bash$ grep "1133*" tstfile Run grep "1133*" on this file. # Match. This line contains the number 113. # Match. This line contains the number 1133. # Match. This line contains the number 113312. # Match. This line contains the number 113312312. # Match. <anchor id="extregex">Extended REs Additional metacharacters added to the basic set. Used in egrep, awk, and Perl. ? special character ? The question mark -- ? -- matches zero or one of the previous RE. It is generally used for matching single characters. + special character + The plus -- + -- matches one or more of the previous RE. It serves a role similar to the *, but does not match zero occurrences. # GNU versions of sed and awk can use "+", # but it needs to be escaped. echo a111b | sed -ne '/a1\+b/p' echo a111b | grep 'a1\+b' echo a111b | gawk '/a1+b/' # All of above are equivalent. # Thanks, S.C. \{ \} special character \{ \} Escaped curly brackets -- \{ \} -- indicate the number of occurrences of a preceding RE to match. It is necessary to escape the curly brackets since they have only their literal character meaning otherwise. This usage is technically not part of the basic RE set. [0-9]\{5\} matches exactly five digits (characters in the range of 0 to 9). Curly brackets are not available as an RE in the classic (non-POSIX compliant) version of awk. However, gawk has the option that permits them (without being escaped). bash$ echo 2222 | gawk --re-interval '/2{3}/' 2222 Perl and some egrep versions do not require escaping the curly brackets. () special character () Parentheses -- ( ) -- enclose a group of REs. They are useful with the following | operator and in substring extraction using expr. | special character | The -- | -- or RE operator matches any of a set of alternate characters. bash$ egrep 're(a|e)d' misc.txt People who read seem to be better informed than those who do not. The clarinet produces sound by the vibration of its reed. Some versions of sed, ed, and ex support escaped versions of the extended Regular Expressions described above, as do the GNU utilities. <anchor id="posixref">POSIX Character Classes [:class:] [: special character :] This is an alternate method of specifying a range of characters to match. alnum character range alphabetic numeric [:alnum:] matches alphabetic or numeric characters. This is equivalent to A-Za-z0-9. alpha character range alphabetic [:alpha:] matches alphabetic characters. This is equivalent to A-Za-z. blank character range space tab [:blank:] matches a space or a tab. cntrl character range control [:cntrl:] matches control characters. digit character range decimal digit [:digit:] matches (decimal) digits. This is equivalent to 0-9. graph character range graph [:graph:] (graphic printable characters). Matches characters in the range of ASCII 33 - 126. This is the same as [:print:], below, but excluding the space character. lower character range lowercase [:lower:] matches lowercase alphabetic characters. This is equivalent to a-z. print character range printable [:print:] (printable characters). Matches characters in the range of ASCII 32 - 126. This is the same as [:graph:], above, but adding the space character. space character range whitespace [:space:] matches whitespace characters (space and horizontal tab). upper character range uppercase [:upper:] matches uppercase alphabetic characters. This is equivalent to A-Z. xdigit character range hexadecimal [:xdigit:] matches hexadecimal digits. This is equivalent to 0-9A-Fa-f. POSIX character classes generally require quoting or double brackets ([[ ]]). bash$ grep [[:digit:]] test.file abc=723 These character classes may even be used with globbing, to a limited extent. bash$ ls -l ?[[:digit:]][[:digit:]]? -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 21 14:47 a33b To see POSIX character classes used in scripts, refer to and . Sed, awk, and Perl, used as filters in scripts, take REs as arguments when "sifting" or transforming files or I/O streams. See and for illustrations of this. The standard reference on this complex topic is Friedl's Mastering Regular Expressions. Sed & Awk, by Dougherty and Robbins, also gives a very lucid treatment of REs. See the for more information on these books. Globbing Bash itself cannot recognize Regular Expressions. Inside scripts, it is commands and utilities -- such as sed and awk -- that interpret RE's. Bash does carry out filename expansion Filename expansion means expanding filename patterns or templates containing special characters. For example, example.??? might expand to example.001 and/or example.txt. -- a process known as globbing -- but this does not use the standard RE set. Instead, globbing recognizes and expands wild cards. Globbing interprets the standard wild card characters A wild card character, analogous to a wild card in poker, can represent (almost) any other character. -- * and ?, character lists in square brackets, and certain other special characters (such as ^ for negating the sense of a match). There are important limitations on wild card characters in globbing, however. Strings containing * will not match filenames that start with a dot, as, for example, .bashrc. Filename expansion can match dotfiles, but only if the pattern explicitly includes the dot as a literal character. ~/[.]bashrc # Will not expand to ~/.bashrc ~/?bashrc # Neither will this. # Wild cards and metacharacters will NOT #+ expand to a dot in globbing. ~/.[b]ashrc # Will expand to ~/.bashrc ~/.ba?hrc # Likewise. ~/.bashr* # Likewise. # Setting the "dotglob" option turns this off. # Thanks, S.C. Likewise, the ? has a different meaning in globbing than as part of an RE. bash$ ls -l total 2 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 a.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 b.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 c.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 466 Aug 6 17:48 t2.sh -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 758 Jul 30 09:02 test1.txt bash$ ls -l t?.sh -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 466 Aug 6 17:48 t2.sh bash$ ls -l [ab]* -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 a.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 b.1 bash$ ls -l [a-c]* -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 a.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 b.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 c.1 bash$ ls -l [^ab]* -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 c.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 466 Aug 6 17:48 t2.sh -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 758 Jul 30 09:02 test1.txt bash$ ls -l {b*,c*,*est*} -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 b.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Aug 6 18:42 c.1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 758 Jul 30 09:02 test1.txt Bash performs filename expansion on unquoted command-line arguments. The echo command demonstrates this. bash$ echo * a.1 b.1 c.1 t2.sh test1.txt bash$ echo t* t2.sh test1.txt bash$ echo t?.sh t2.sh It is possible to modify the way Bash interprets special characters in globbing. A set -f command disables globbing, and the and options to shopt change globbing behavior. See also . Here Documents Here and now, boys. --Aldous Huxley, Island << special character << A here document is a special-purpose code block. It uses a form of I/O redirection to feed a command list to an interactive program or a command, such as ftp, cat, or the ex text editor. COMMAND <<InputComesFromHERE ... InputComesFromHERE A limit string delineates (frames) the command list. The special symbol << designates the limit string. This has the effect of redirecting the output of a file into the stdin of the program or command. It is similar to interactive-program < command-file, where command-file contains command #1 command #2 ... The here document alternative looks like this: #!/bin/bash interactive-program <<LimitString command #1 command #2 ... LimitString Choose a limit string sufficiently unusual that it will not occur anywhere in the command list and confuse matters. Note that here documents may sometimes be used to good effect with non-interactive utilities and commands, such as, for example, wall. <firstterm>broadcast</firstterm>: Sends message to everyone logged in &ex70; Even such unlikely candidates as the vi text editor lend themselves to here documents. <firstterm>dummyfile</firstterm>: Creates a 2-line dummy file &ex69; The above script could just as effectively have been implemented with ex, rather than vi. Here documents containing a list of ex commands are common enough to form their own category, known as ex scripts. #!/bin/bash # Replace all instances of "Smith" with "Jones" #+ in files with a ".txt" filename suffix. ORIGINAL=Smith REPLACEMENT=Jones for word in $(fgrep -l $ORIGINAL *.txt) do # ------------------------------------- ex $word <<EOF :%s/$ORIGINAL/$REPLACEMENT/g :wq EOF # :%s is the "ex" substitution command. # :wq is write-and-quit. # ------------------------------------- done Analogous to ex scripts are cat scripts. Multi-line message using <firstterm>cat</firstterm> &ex71; The option to mark a here document limit string (<<-LimitString) suppresses leading tabs (but not spaces) in the output. This may be useful in making a script more readable. Multi-line message, with tabs suppressed &ex71a; A here document supports parameter and command substitution. It is therefore possible to pass different parameters to the body of the here document, changing its output accordingly. Here document with replaceable parameters &ex71b; This is a useful script containing a here document with parameter substitution. Upload a file pair to <firstterm>Sunsite</firstterm> incoming directory &ex72; Quoting or escaping the limit string at the head of a here document disables parameter substitution within its body. Parameter substitution turned off &ex71c; Disabling parameter substitution permits outputting literal text. Generating scripts or even program code is one use for this. A script that generates another script &generatescript; It is possible to set a variable from the output of a here document. This is actually a devious form of command substitution. variable=$(cat <<SETVAR This variable runs over multiple lines. SETVAR) echo "$variable" A here document can supply input to a function in the same script. Here documents and functions &hf; It is possible to use : as a dummy command accepting output from a here document. This, in effect, creates an anonymous here document. <quote>Anonymous</quote> Here Document #!/bin/bash : <<TESTVARIABLES ${HOSTNAME?}${USER?}${MAIL?} # Print error message if one of the variables not set. TESTVARIABLES exit $? A variation of the above technique permits commenting out blocks of code. Commenting out a block of code &commentblock; Yet another twist of this nifty trick makes self-documenting scripts possible. A self-documenting script &selfdocument; Using a cat script is an alternate way of accomplishing this. DOC_REQUEST=70 if [ "$1" = "-h" -o "$1" = "--help" ] # Request help. then # Use a "cat script" . . . cat <<DOCUMENTATIONXX List the statistics of a specified directory in tabular format. --------------------------------------------------------------- The command line parameter gives the directory to be listed. If no directory specified or directory specified cannot be read, then list the current working directory. DOCUMENTATIONXX exit $DOC_REQUEST fi See also , , , and for more examples of self-documenting scripts. Here documents create temporary files, but these files are deleted after opening and are not accessible to any other process. bash$ bash -c 'lsof -a -p $$ -d0' << EOF > EOF lsof 1213 bozo 0r REG 3,5 0 30386 /tmp/t1213-0-sh (deleted) Some utilities will not work inside a here document. The closing limit string, on the final line of a here document, must start in the first character position. There can be no leading whitespace. Trailing whitespace after the limit string likewise causes unexpected behavior. The whitespace prevents the limit string from being recognized. #!/bin/bash echo "----------------------------------------------------------------------" cat <<LimitString echo "This is line 1 of the message inside the here document." echo "This is line 2 of the message inside the here document." echo "This is the final line of the message inside the here document." LimitString #^^^^Indented limit string. Error! This script will not behave as expected. echo "----------------------------------------------------------------------" # These comments are outside the 'here document', #+ and should not echo. echo "Outside the here document." exit 0 echo "This line had better not echo." # Follows an 'exit' command. For those tasks too complex for a here document, consider using the expect scripting language, which was specifically designed for feeding input into interactive programs. Here Strings A here string can be considered as a stripped-down form of a here document. It consists of nothing more than COMMAND <<<$WORD, where $WORD is expanded and fed to the stdin of COMMAND. As a simple example, consider this alternative to the echo-grep construction. # Instead of: if echo "$VAR" | grep -q txt # if [[ $VAR = *txt* ]] # etc. # Try: if grep -q "txt" <<< "$VAR" then # ^^^ echo "$VAR contains the substring sequence \"txt\"" fi # Thank you, Sebastian Kaminski, for the suggestion. Or, in combination with read: String="This is a string of words." read -r -a Words <<< "$String" # The -a option to "read" #+ assigns the resulting values to successive members of an array. echo "First word in String is: ${Words[0]}" # This echo "Second word in String is: ${Words[1]}" # is echo "Third word in String is: ${Words[2]}" # a echo "Fourth word in String is: ${Words[3]}" # string echo "Fifth word in String is: ${Words[4]}" # of echo "Sixth word in String is: ${Words[5]}" # words. echo "Seventh word in String is: ${Words[6]}" # (null) # Past end of $String. # Thank you, Francisco Lobo, for the suggestion. Prepending a line to a file &prependex; Parsing a mailbox &mailboxgrep; Exercise: Find other uses for here strings. I/O Redirection There are always three default files By convention in UNIX and Linux, data streams and peripherals (device files) are treated as files, in a fashion analogous to ordinary files. open, stdin (the keyboard), stdout (the screen), and stderr (error messages output to the screen). These, and any other open files, can be redirected. Redirection simply means capturing output from a file, command, program, script, or even code block within a script (see and ) and sending it as input to another file, command, program, or script. Each open file gets assigned a file descriptor. A file descriptor is simply a number that the operating system assigns to an open file to keep track of it. Consider it a simplified type of file pointer. It is analogous to a file handle in C. The file descriptors for stdin, stdout, and stderr are 0, 1, and 2, respectively. For opening additional files, there remain descriptors 3 to 9. It is sometimes useful to assign one of these additional file descriptors to stdin, stdout, or stderr as a temporary duplicate link. Using file descriptor 5 might cause problems. When Bash creates a child process, as with exec, the child inherits fd 5 (see Chet Ramey's archived e-mail, SUBJECT: RE: File descriptor 5 is held open). Best leave this particular fd alone. This simplifies restoration to normal after complex redirection and reshuffling (see ). COMMAND_OUTPUT > # Redirect stdout to a file. # Creates the file if not present, otherwise overwrites it. ls -lR > dir-tree.list # Creates a file containing a listing of the directory tree. : > filename # The > truncates file "filename" to zero length. # If file not present, creates zero-length file (same effect as 'touch'). # The : serves as a dummy placeholder, producing no output. > filename # The > truncates file "filename" to zero length. # If file not present, creates zero-length file (same effect as 'touch'). # (Same result as ": >", above, but this does not work with some shells.) COMMAND_OUTPUT >> # Redirect stdout to a file. # Creates the file if not present, otherwise appends to it. # Single-line redirection commands (affect only the line they are on): # -------------------------------------------------------------------- 1>filename # Redirect stdout to file "filename." 1>>filename # Redirect and append stdout to file "filename." 2>filename # Redirect stderr to file "filename." 2>>filename # Redirect and append stderr to file "filename." &>filename # Redirect both stdout and stderr to file "filename." # # Note that &>>filename #+ -- attempting to redirect and *append* #+ stdout and stderr to file "filename" -- #+ fails with the error message, #+ syntax error near unexpected token `>'. M>N # "M" is a file descriptor, which defaults to 1, if not explicitly set. # "N" is a filename. # File descriptor "M" is redirect to file "N." M>&N # "M" is a file descriptor, which defaults to 1, if not set. # "N" is another file descriptor. #============================================================================== # Redirecting stdout, one line at a time. LOGFILE=script.log echo "This statement is sent to the log file, \"$LOGFILE\"." 1>$LOGFILE echo "This statement is appended to \"$LOGFILE\"." 1>>$LOGFILE echo "This statement is also appended to \"$LOGFILE\"." 1>>$LOGFILE echo "This statement is echoed to stdout, and will not appear in \"$LOGFILE\"." # These redirection commands automatically "reset" after each line. # Redirecting stderr, one line at a time. ERRORFILE=script.errors bad_command1 2>$ERRORFILE # Error message sent to $ERRORFILE. bad_command2 2>>$ERRORFILE # Error message appended to $ERRORFILE. bad_command3 # Error message echoed to stderr, #+ and does not appear in $ERRORFILE. # These redirection commands also automatically "reset" after each line. #======================================================================= 2>&1 # Redirects stderr to stdout. # Error messages get sent to same place as standard output. i>&j # Redirects file descriptor i to j. # All output of file pointed to by i gets sent to file pointed to by j. >&j # Redirects, by default, file descriptor 1 (stdout) to j. # All stdout gets sent to file pointed to by j. 0< FILENAME < FILENAME # Accept input from a file. # Companion command to >, and often used in combination with it. # # grep search-word <filename [j]<>filename # Open file "filename" for reading and writing, #+ and assign file descriptor "j" to it. # If "filename" does not exist, create it. # If file descriptor "j" is not specified, default to fd 0, stdin. # # An application of this is writing at a specified place in a file. echo 1234567890 > File # Write string to "File". exec 3<> File # Open "File" and assign fd 3 to it. read -n 4 <&3 # Read only 4 characters. echo -n . >&3 # Write a decimal point there. exec 3>&- # Close fd 3. cat File # ==> 1234.67890 # Random access, by golly. | # Pipe. # General purpose process and command chaining tool. # Similar to >, but more general in effect. # Useful for chaining commands, scripts, files, and programs together. cat *.txt | sort | uniq > result-file # Sorts the output of all the .txt files and deletes duplicate lines, # finally saves results to result-file. Multiple instances of input and output redirection and/or pipes can be combined in a single command line. command < input-file > output-file command1 | command2 | command3 > output-file See and . Multiple output streams may be redirected to one file. ls -yz >> command.log 2>&1 # Capture result of illegal options "yz" in file "command.log." # Because stderr is redirected to the file, #+ any error messages will also be there. # Note, however, that the following does *not* give the same result. ls -yz 2>&1 >> command.log # Outputs an error message and does not write to file. # If redirecting both stdout and stderr, #+ the order of the commands makes a difference. <anchor id="cfd">Closing File Descriptors n<&- Close input file descriptor n. 0<&- <&- Close stdin. n>&- Close output file descriptor n. 1>&- >&- Close stdout. Child processes inherit open file descriptors. This is why pipes work. To prevent an fd from being inherited, close it. # Redirecting only stderr to a pipe. exec 3>&1 # Save current "value" of stdout. ls -l 2>&1 >&3 3>&- | grep bad 3>&- # Close fd 3 for 'grep' (but not 'ls'). # ^^^^ ^^^^ exec 3>&- # Now close it for the remainder of the script. # Thanks, S.C. For a more detailed introduction to I/O redirection see . Using <firstterm>exec</firstterm> An exec <filename command redirects stdin to a file. From that point on, all stdin comes from that file, rather than its normal source (usually keyboard input). This provides a method of reading a file line by line and possibly parsing each line of input using sed and/or awk. Redirecting <filename>stdin</filename> using <firstterm>exec</firstterm> &redir1; Similarly, an exec >filename command redirects stdout to a designated file. This sends all command output that would normally go to stdout to that file. exec N > filename affects the entire script or current shell. Redirection in the PID of the script or shell from that point on has changed. However . . . N > filename affects only the newly-forked process, not the entire script or shell. Thank you, Ahmed Darwish, for pointing this out. Redirecting <filename>stdout</filename> using <firstterm>exec</firstterm> &reassignstdout; Redirecting both <filename>stdin</filename> and <filename>stdout</filename> in the same script with <firstterm>exec</firstterm> &upperconv; I/O redirection is a clever way of avoiding the dreaded inaccessible variables within a subshell problem. Avoiding a subshell &avoidsubshell; Redirecting Code Blocks Blocks of code, such as while, until, and for loops, even if/then test blocks can also incorporate redirection of stdin. Even a function may use this form of redirection (see ). The < operator at the end of the code block accomplishes this. Redirected <firstterm>while</firstterm> loop &redir2; Alternate form of redirected <firstterm>while</firstterm> loop &redir2a; Redirected <firstterm>until</firstterm> loop &redir3; Redirected <firstterm>for</firstterm> loop &redir4; We can modify the previous example to also redirect the output of the loop. Redirected <firstterm>for</firstterm> loop (both <filename>stdin</filename> and <filename>stdout</filename> redirected) &redir4a; Redirected <firstterm>if/then</firstterm> test &redir5; Data file <firstterm>names.data</firstterm> for above examples &namesdata; Redirecting the stdout of a code block has the effect of saving its output to a file. See . Here documents are a special case of redirected code blocks. That being the case, it should be possible to feed the output of a here document into the stdin for a while loop. # This example by Albert Siersema # Used with permission (thanks!). function doesOutput() # Could be an external command too, of course. # Here we show you can use a function as well. { ls -al *.jpg | awk '{print $5,$9}' } nr=0 # We want the while loop to be able to manipulate these and totalSize=0 #+ to be able to see the changes after the while finished. while read fileSize fileName ; do echo "$fileName is $fileSize bytes" let nr++ totalSize=$((totalSize+fileSize)) # Or: "let totalSize+=fileSize" done<<EOF $(doesOutput) EOF echo "$nr files totaling $totalSize bytes" Applications Clever use of I/O redirection permits parsing and stitching together snippets of command output (see ). This permits generating report and log files. Logging events &logevents; Subshells Running a shell script launches a new process, a subshell. Definition: A subshell is a child process launched by a shell (or shell script). A subshell is a separate instance of the command processor -- the shell that gives you the prompt at the console or in an xterm window. Just as your commands are interpreted at the command line prompt, similarly does a script batch-process a list of commands. Each shell script running is, in effect, a subprocess (child process) of the parent shell. A shell script can itself launch subprocesses. These subshells let the script do parallel processing, in effect executing multiple subtasks simultaneously. #!/bin/bash # subshell-test.sh ( # Inside parentheses, and therefore a subshell . . . while [ 1 ] # Endless loop. do echo "Subshell running . . ." done ) # Script will run forever, #+ or at least until terminated by a Ctl-C. exit $? # End of script (but will never get here). Now, run the script: sh subshell-test.sh And, while the script is running, from a different xterm: ps -ef | grep subshell-test.sh UID PID PPID C STIME TTY TIME CMD 500 2698 2502 0 14:26 pts/4 00:00:00 sh subshell-test.sh 500 2699 2698 21 14:26 pts/4 00:00:24 sh subshell-test.sh ^^^^ Analysis: PID 2698, the script, launched PID 2699, the subshell. Note: The "UID ..." line would be filtered out by the "grep" command, but is shown here for illustrative purposes. In general, an external command in a script forks off a subprocess, An external command invoked with an exec does not (usually) fork off a subprocess / subshell. whereas a Bash builtin does not. For this reason, builtins execute more quickly than their external command equivalents. <anchor id="subshellparens1">Command List within Parentheses ( command1; command2; command3; ... ) A command list embedded between parentheses runs as a subshell. Variables in a subshell are not visible outside the block of code in the subshell. They are not accessible to the parent process, to the shell that launched the subshell. These are, in effect, variables local to the child process. Variable scope in a subshell &subshell; See also . Definition: The scope of a variable is the context in which it has meaning, in which it has a value that can be referenced. For example, the scope of a local variable lies only within the function, block of code, or subshell within which it is defined, while the scope of a global variable is the entire script in which it appears. While the $BASH_SUBSHELL internal variable indicates the nesting level of a subshell, the $SHLVL variable shows no change within a subshell. echo " \$BASH_SUBSHELL outside subshell = $BASH_SUBSHELL" # 0 ( echo " \$BASH_SUBSHELL inside subshell = $BASH_SUBSHELL" ) # 1 ( ( echo " \$BASH_SUBSHELL inside nested subshell = $BASH_SUBSHELL" ) ) # 2 # ^ ^ *** nested *** ^ ^ echo echo " \$SHLVL outside subshell = $SHLVL" # 3 ( echo " \$SHLVL inside subshell = $SHLVL" ) # 3 (No change!) Directory changes made in a subshell do not carry over to the parent shell. List User Profiles &allprofs; A subshell may be used to set up a dedicated environment for a command group. COMMAND1 COMMAND2 COMMAND3 ( IFS=: PATH=/bin unset TERMINFO set -C shift 5 COMMAND4 COMMAND5 exit 3 # Only exits the subshell! ) # The parent shell has not been affected, and the environment is preserved. COMMAND6 COMMAND7 As seen here, the exit command only terminates the subshell in which it is running, not the parent shell or script. One application of such a dedicated environment is testing whether a variable is defined. if (set -u; : $variable) 2> /dev/null then echo "Variable is set." fi # Variable has been set in current script, #+ or is an an internal Bash variable, #+ or is present in environment (has been exported). # Could also be written [[ ${variable-x} != x || ${variable-y} != y ]] # or [[ ${variable-x} != x$variable ]] # or [[ ${variable+x} = x ]] # or [[ ${variable-x} != x ]] Another application is checking for a lock file: if (set -C; : > lock_file) 2> /dev/null then : # lock_file didn't exist: no user running the script else echo "Another user is already running that script." exit 65 fi # Code snippet by Stéphane Chazelas, #+ with modifications by Paulo Marcel Coelho Aragao. + Processes may execute in parallel within different subshells. This permits breaking a complex task into subcomponents processed concurrently. Running parallel processes in subshells (cat list1 list2 list3 | sort | uniq > list123) & (cat list4 list5 list6 | sort | uniq > list456) & # Merges and sorts both sets of lists simultaneously. # Running in background ensures parallel execution. # # Same effect as # cat list1 list2 list3 | sort | uniq > list123 & # cat list4 list5 list6 | sort | uniq > list456 & wait # Don't execute the next command until subshells finish. diff list123 list456 Redirecting I/O to a subshell uses the | pipe operator, as in ls -al | (command). A command block between curly braces does not launch a subshell. { command1; command2; command3; . . . commandN; } Restricted Shells <anchor id="disabledcommref">Disabled commands in restricted shells Running a script or portion of a script in restricted mode disables certain commands that would otherwise be available. This is a security measure intended to limit the privileges of the script user and to minimize possible damage from running the script. The following commands and actions are disabled: Using cd to change the working directory. Changing the values of the $PATH, $SHELL, $BASH_ENV, or $ENV environmental variables. Reading or changing the $SHELLOPTS, shell environmental options. Output redirection. Invoking commands containing one or more /'s. Invoking exec to substitute a different process for the shell. Various other commands that would enable monkeying with or attempting to subvert the script for an unintended purpose. Getting out of restricted mode within the script. Running a script in restricted mode &restricted; Process Substitution Piping the stdout of a command into the stdin of another is a powerful technique. But, what if you need to pipe the stdout of multiple commands? This is where process substitution comes in. Process substitution feeds the output of a process (or processes) into the stdin of another process. <anchor id="commandsparens1">Template Command list enclosed within parentheses >(command_list) <(command_list) Process substitution uses /dev/fd/<n> files to send the results of the process(es) within parentheses to another process. This has the same effect as a named pipe (temp file), and, in fact, named pipes were at one time used in process substitution. There is no space between the the < or > and the parentheses. Space there would give an error message. bash$ echo >(true) /dev/fd/63 bash$ echo <(true) /dev/fd/63 Bash creates a pipe with two file descriptors, --fIn and fOut--. The stdin of true connects to fOut (dup2(fOut, 0)), then Bash passes a /dev/fd/fIn argument to echo. On systems lacking /dev/fd/<n> files, Bash may use temporary files. (Thanks, S.C.) Process substitution can compare the output of two different commands, or even the output of different options to the same command. bash$ comm <(ls -l) <(ls -al) total 12 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 78 Mar 10 12:58 File0 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 42 Mar 10 12:58 File2 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 103 Mar 10 12:58 t2.sh total 20 drwxrwxrwx 2 bozo bozo 4096 Mar 10 18:10 . drwx------ 72 bozo bozo 4096 Mar 10 17:58 .. -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 78 Mar 10 12:58 File0 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 42 Mar 10 12:58 File2 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 103 Mar 10 12:58 t2.sh Using process substitution to compare the contents of two directories (to see which filenames are in one, but not the other): diff <(ls $first_directory) <(ls $second_directory) Some other usages and uses of process substitution: read -a list < <( od -Ad -w24 -t u2 /dev/urandom ) # Read a list of random numbers from /dev/urandom, #+ process with "od" #+ and feed into stdin of "read" . . . # From "insertion-sort.bash" example script. # Courtesy of JuanJo Ciarlante. cat <(ls -l) # Same as ls -l | cat sort -k 9 <(ls -l /bin) <(ls -l /usr/bin) <(ls -l /usr/X11R6/bin) # Lists all the files in the 3 main 'bin' directories, and sorts by filename. # Note that three (count 'em) distinct commands are fed to 'sort'. diff <(command1) <(command2) # Gives difference in command output. tar cf >(bzip2 -c > file.tar.bz2) $directory_name # Calls "tar cf /dev/fd/?? $directory_name", and "bzip2 -c > file.tar.bz2". # # Because of the /dev/fd/<n> system feature, # the pipe between both commands does not need to be named. # # This can be emulated. # bzip2 -c < pipe > file.tar.bz2& tar cf pipe $directory_name rm pipe # or exec 3>&1 tar cf /dev/fd/4 $directory_name 4>&1 >&3 3>&- | bzip2 -c > file.tar.bz2 3>&- exec 3>&- # Thanks, Stéphane Chazelas A reader sent in the following interesting example of process substitution. # Script fragment taken from SuSE distribution: # --------------------------------------------------------------# while read des what mask iface; do # Some commands ... done < <(route -n) # ^ ^ First < is redirection, second is process substitution. # To test it, let's make it do something. while read des what mask iface; do echo $des $what $mask $iface done < <(route -n) # Output: # Kernel IP routing table # Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface # 127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 0 lo # --------------------------------------------------------------# # As Stéphane Chazelas points out, #+ an easier-to-understand equivalent is: route -n | while read des what mask iface; do # Variables set from output of pipe. echo $des $what $mask $iface done # This yields the same output as above. # However, as Ulrich Gayer points out . . . #+ this simplified equivalent uses a subshell for the while loop, #+ and therefore the variables disappear when the pipe terminates. # --------------------------------------------------------------# # However, Filip Moritz comments that there is a subtle difference #+ between the above two examples, as the following shows. ( route -n | while read x; do ((y++)); done echo $y # $y is still unset while read x; do ((y++)); done < <(route -n) echo $y # $y has the number of lines of output of route -n ) More generally spoken ( : | x=x # seems to start a subshell like : | ( x=x ) # while x=x < <(:) # does not ) # This is useful, when parsing csv and the like. # That is, in effect, what the original SuSE code fragment does. Functions Like real programming languages, Bash has functions, though in a somewhat limited implementation. A function is a subroutine, a code block that implements a set of operations, a black box that performs a specified task. Wherever there is repetitive code, when a task repeats with only slight variations in procedure, then consider using a function. function function_name { command } or function_name () { command } This second form will cheer the hearts of C programmers (and is more portable). As in C, the function's opening bracket may optionally appear on the second line. function_name () { command } A function may be compacted into a single line. fun () { echo "This is a function"; echo; } # ^ ^ In this case, however, a semicolon must follow the final command in the function. fun () { echo "This is a function"; echo } # Error! # ^ Functions are called, triggered, simply by invoking their names. A function call is equivalent to a command. Simple functions &ex59; The function definition must precede the first call to it. There is no method of declaring the function, as, for example, in C. f1 # Will give an error message, since function "f1" not yet defined. declare -f f1 # This doesn't help either. f1 # Still an error message. # However... f1 () { echo "Calling function \"f2\" from within function \"f1\"." f2 } f2 () { echo "Function \"f2\"." } f1 # Function "f2" is not actually called until this point, #+ although it is referenced before its definition. # This is permissible. # Thanks, S.C. Functions may not be empty! #!/bin/bash # empty-function.sh empty () { } exit 0 # Will not exit here! # $ sh empty-function.sh # empty-function.sh: line 6: syntax error near unexpected token `}' # empty-function.sh: line 6: `}' # $ echo $? # 2 # However ... not_quite_empty () { illegal_command } # A script containing this function will *not* bomb #+ as long as the function is not called. # Thank you, Thiemo Kellner, for pointing this out. It is even possible to nest a function within another function, although this is not very useful. f1 () { f2 () # nested { echo "Function \"f2\", inside \"f1\"." } } f2 # Gives an error message. # Even a preceding "declare -f f2" wouldn't help. echo f1 # Does nothing, since calling "f1" does not automatically call "f2". f2 # Now, it's all right to call "f2", #+ since its definition has been made visible by calling "f1". # Thanks, S.C. Function declarations can appear in unlikely places, even where a command would otherwise go. ls -l | foo() { echo "foo"; } # Permissible, but useless. if [ "$USER" = bozo ] then bozo_greet () # Function definition embedded in an if/then construct. { echo "Hello, Bozo." } fi bozo_greet # Works only for Bozo, and other users get an error. # Something like this might be useful in some contexts. NO_EXIT=1 # Will enable function definition below. [[ $NO_EXIT -eq 1 ]] && exit() { true; } # Function definition in an "and-list". # If $NO_EXIT is 1, declares "exit ()". # This disables the "exit" builtin by aliasing it to "true". exit # Invokes "exit ()" function, not "exit" builtin. # Or, similarly: filename=file1 [ -f "$filename" ] && foo () { rm -f "$filename"; echo "File "$filename" deleted."; } || foo () { echo "File "$filename" not found."; touch bar; } foo # Thanks, S.C. and Christopher Head What happens when different versions of the same function appear in a script? # As Yan Chen points out, # when a function is defined multiple times, # the final version is what is invoked. # This is not, however, particularly useful. func () { echo "First version of func ()." } func () { echo "Second version of func ()." } func # Second version of func (). exit $? # It is even possible to use functions to override #+ or preempt system commands. # Of course, this is *not* advisable. Complex Functions and Function Complexities Functions may process arguments passed to them and return an exit status to the script for further processing. function_name $arg1 $arg2 The function refers to the passed arguments by position (as if they were positional parameters), that is, $1, $2, and so forth. Function Taking Parameters &ex60; The shift command works on arguments passed to functions (see ). But, what about command-line arguments passed to the script? Does a function see them? Well, let's clear up the confusion. Functions and command-line args passed to the script &funccmdlinearg; In contrast to certain other programming languages, shell scripts normally pass only value parameters to functions. Variable names (which are actually pointers), if passed as parameters to functions, will be treated as string literals. Functions interpret their arguments literally. Indirect variable references (see ) provide a clumsy sort of mechanism for passing variable pointers to functions. Passing an indirect reference to a function &indfunc; The next logical question is whether parameters can be dereferenced after being passed to a function. Dereferencing a parameter passed to a function &dereferencecl; Again, dereferencing a parameter passed to a function &refparams; <anchor id="exitreturn1">Exit and Return exit status Functions return a value, called an exit status. The exit status may be explicitly specified by a return statement, otherwise it is the exit status of the last command in the function (0 if successful, and a non-zero error code if not). This exit status may be used in the script by referencing it as $?. This mechanism effectively permits script functions to have a return value similar to C functions. return return command return Terminates a function. A return command The return command is a Bash builtin. optionally takes an integer argument, which is returned to the calling script as the exit status of the function, and this exit status is assigned to the variable $?. Maximum of two numbers &max; For a function to return a string or array, use a dedicated variable. count_lines_in_etc_passwd() { [[ -r /etc/passwd ]] && REPLY=$(echo $(wc -l < /etc/passwd)) # If /etc/passwd is readable, set REPLY to line count. # Returns both a parameter value and status information. # The 'echo' seems unnecessary, but . . . #+ it removes excess whitespace from the output. } if count_lines_in_etc_passwd then echo "There are $REPLY lines in /etc/passwd." else echo "Cannot count lines in /etc/passwd." fi # Thanks, S.C. Converting numbers to Roman numerals &ex61; See also . The largest positive integer a function can return is 255. The return command is closely tied to the concept of exit status, which accounts for this particular limitation. Fortunately, there are various workarounds for those situations requiring a large integer return value from a function. Testing large return values in a function &returntest; A workaround for obtaining large integer return values is to simply assign the return value to a global variable. Return_Val= # Global variable to hold oversize return value of function. alt_return_test () { fvar=$1 Return_Val=$fvar return # Returns 0 (success). } alt_return_test 1 echo $? # 0 echo "return value = $Return_Val" # 1 alt_return_test 256 echo "return value = $Return_Val" # 256 alt_return_test 257 echo "return value = $Return_Val" # 257 alt_return_test 25701 echo "return value = $Return_Val" #25701 A more elegant method is to have the function echo its return value to stdout, and then capture it by command substitution. See the discussion of this in . Comparing two large integers &max2; Here is another example of capturing a function return value. Understanding it requires some knowledge of awk. month_length () # Takes month number as an argument. { # Returns number of days in month. monthD="31 28 31 30 31 30 31 31 30 31 30 31" # Declare as local? echo "$monthD" | awk '{ print $'"${1}"' }' # Tricky. # ^^^^^^^^^ # Parameter passed to function ($1 -- month number), then to awk. # Awk sees this as "print $1 . . . print $12" (depending on month number) # Template for passing a parameter to embedded awk script: # $'"${script_parameter}"' # Needs error checking for correct parameter range (1-12) #+ and for February in leap year. } # ---------------------------------------------- # Usage example: month=4 # April, for example (4th month). days_in=$(month_length $month) echo $days_in # 30 # ---------------------------------------------- See also and . Exercise: Using what we have just learned, extend the previous Roman numerals example to accept arbitrarily large input. <anchor id="redstdinfunc1">Redirection Redirecting the stdin of a function redirection stdin A function is essentially a code block, which means its stdin can be redirected (as in ). Real name from username &realname; There is an alternate, and perhaps less confusing method of redirecting a function's stdin. This involves redirecting the stdin to an embedded bracketed code block within the function. # Instead of: Function () { ... } < file # Try this: Function () { { ... } < file } # Similarly, Function () # This works. { { echo $* } | tr a b } Function () # This doesn't work. { echo $* } | tr a b # A nested code block is mandatory here. # Thanks, S.C. Local Variables <anchor id="localref1">What makes a variable <firstterm>local</firstterm>? local variables variable local A variable declared as local is one that is visible only within the block of code in which it appears. It has local scope. In a function, a local variable has meaning only within that function block. Local variable visibility &ex62; Before a function is called, all variables declared within the function are invisible outside the body of the function, not just those explicitly declared as local. #!/bin/bash func () { global_var=37 # Visible only within the function block #+ before the function has been called. } # END OF FUNCTION echo "global_var = $global_var" # global_var = # Function "func" has not yet been called, #+ so $global_var is not visible here. func echo "global_var = $global_var" # global_var = 37 # Has been set by function call. Local variables and recursion. Recursion is an interesting and sometimes useful form of self-reference. Herbert Mayer defines it as . . . expressing an algorithm by using a simpler version of that same algorithm . . . Consider a definition defined in terms of itself, Otherwise known as redundancy. an expression implicit in its own expression, Otherwise known as tautology. a snake swallowing its own tail, Otherwise known as a metaphor. or . . . a function that calls itself. Otherwise known as a recursive function. Demonstration of a simple recursive function &recursiondemo; Another simple demonstration &recursiondemo2; Local variables are a useful tool for writing recursive code, but this practice generally involves a great deal of computational overhead and is definitely not recommended in a shell script. Too many levels of recursion may crash a script with a segfault. #!/bin/bash # Warning: Running this script could possibly lock up your system! # If you're lucky, it will segfault before using up all available memory. recursive_function () { echo "$1" # Makes the function do something, and hastens the segfault. (( $1 < $2 )) && recursive_function $(( $1 + 1 )) $2; # As long as 1st parameter is less than 2nd, #+ increment 1st and recurse. } recursive_function 1 50000 # Recurse 50,000 levels! # Most likely segfaults (depending on stack size, set by ulimit -m). # Recursion this deep might cause even a C program to segfault, #+ by using up all the memory allotted to the stack. echo "This will probably not print." exit 0 # This script will not exit normally. # Thanks, Stéphane Chazelas. Recursion, using a local variable &ex63; Also see for an example of recursion in a script. Be aware that recursion is resource-intensive and executes slowly, and is therefore generally not appropriate in a script. Recursion Without Local Variables A function may recursively call itself even without use of local variables. <firstterm>The Fibonacci Sequence</firstterm> &fibo; <firstterm>The Towers of Hanoi</firstterm> &hanoi; Aliases alias A Bash alias is essentially nothing more than a keyboard shortcut, an abbreviation, a means of avoiding typing a long command sequence. If, for example, we include alias lm="ls -l | more" in the ~/.bashrc file, then each lm typed at the command line will automatically be replaced by a ls -l | more. This can save a great deal of typing at the command line and avoid having to remember complex combinations of commands and options. Setting alias rm="rm -i" (interactive mode delete) may save a good deal of grief, since it can prevent inadvertently losing important files. In a script, aliases have very limited usefulness. It would be quite nice if aliases could assume some of the functionality of the C preprocessor, such as macro expansion, but unfortunately Bash does not expand arguments within the alias body. However, aliases do seem to expand positional parameters. Moreover, a script fails to expand an alias itself within compound constructs, such as if/then statements, loops, and functions. An added limitation is that an alias will not expand recursively. Almost invariably, whatever we would like an alias to do could be accomplished much more effectively with a function. Aliases within a script &al; The unalias command removes a previously set alias. <firstterm>unalias</firstterm>: Setting and unsetting an alias &unal; bash$ ./unalias.sh total 6 drwxrwxr-x 2 bozo bozo 3072 Feb 6 14:04 . drwxr-xr-x 40 bozo bozo 2048 Feb 6 14:04 .. -rwxr-xr-x 1 bozo bozo 199 Feb 6 14:04 unalias.sh ./unalias.sh: llm: command not found List Constructs && special character && AND list || special character || OR list The and list and or list constructs provide a means of processing a number of commands consecutively. These can effectively replace complex nested if/then or even case statements. <anchor id="lcons1">Chaining together commands and list command-1 && command-2 && command-3 && ... command-n Each command executes in turn, provided that the previous command has given a return value of true (zero). At the first false (non-zero) return, the command chain terminates (the first command returning false is the last one to execute). Using an <firstterm>and list</firstterm> to test for command-line arguments &ex64; Another command-line arg test using an <firstterm>and list</firstterm> &andlist2; Of course, an and list can also set variables to a default value. arg1=$@ && [ -z "$arg1" ] && arg1=DEFAULT # Set $arg1 to command line arguments, if any. # But . . . set to DEFAULT if not specified on command line. or list command-1 || command-2 || command-3 || ... command-n Each command executes in turn for as long as the previous command returns false. At the first true return, the command chain terminates (the first command returning true is the last one to execute). This is obviously the inverse of the and list. Using <firstterm>or lists</firstterm> in combination with an <firstterm>and list</firstterm> &ex65; If the first command in an or list returns true, it will execute. # ==> The following snippets from the /etc/rc.d/init.d/single #+==> script by Miquel van Smoorenburg #+==> illustrate use of "and" and "or" lists. # ==> "Arrowed" comments added by document author. [ -x /usr/bin/clear ] && /usr/bin/clear # ==> If /usr/bin/clear exists, then invoke it. # ==> Checking for the existence of a command before calling it #+==> avoids error messages and other awkward consequences. # ==> . . . # If they want to run something in single user mode, might as well run it... for i in /etc/rc1.d/S[0-9][0-9]* ; do # Check if the script is there. [ -x "$i" ] || continue # ==> If corresponding file in $PWD *not* found, #+==> then "continue" by jumping to the top of the loop. # Reject backup files and files generated by rpm. case "$1" in *.rpmsave|*.rpmorig|*.rpmnew|*~|*.orig) continue;; esac [ "$i" = "/etc/rc1.d/S00single" ] && continue # ==> Set script name, but don't execute it yet. $i start done # ==> . . . The exit status of an and list or an or list is the exit status of the last command executed. Clever combinations of and and or lists are possible, but the logic may easily become convoluted and require close attention to operator precedence rules, and possibly extensive debugging. false && true || echo false # false # Same result as ( false && true ) || echo false # false # But NOT false && ( true || echo false ) # (nothing echoed) # Note left-to-right grouping and evaluation of statements, #+ since the logic operators "&&" and "||" have equal precedence. # It's usually best to avoid such complexities. # Thanks, S.C. See and for illustrations of using and / or list constructs to test variables. Arrays Newer versions of Bash support one-dimensional arrays. Array elements may be initialized with the variable[xx] notation. Alternatively, a script may introduce the entire array by an explicit declare -a variable statement. To dereference (retrieve the contents of) an array element, use curly bracket notation, that is, ${element[xx]}. Simple array usage &ex66; As we have seen, a convenient way of initializing an entire array is the array=( element1 element2 ... elementN ) notation. Bash permits array operations on variables, even if the variables are not explicitly declared as arrays. string=abcABC123ABCabc echo ${string[@]} # abcABC123ABCabc echo ${string[*]} # abcABC123ABCabc echo ${string[0]} # abcABC123ABCabc echo ${string[1]} # No output! # Why? echo ${#string[@]} # 1 # One element in the array. # The string itself. # Thank you, Michael Zick, for pointing this out. Once again this demonstrates that Bash variables are untyped. Formatting a poem &poem; Array variables have a syntax all their own, and even standard Bash commands and operators have special options adapted for array use. Various array operations &arrayops; Many of the standard string operations work on arrays. String operations on arrays &arraystrops; Command substitution can construct the individual elements of an array. Loading the contents of a script into an array &scriptarray; In an array context, some Bash builtins have a slightly altered meaning. For example, unset deletes array elements, or even an entire array. Some special properties of arrays &ex67; As seen in the previous example, either ${array_name[@]} or ${array_name[*]} refers to all the elements of the array. Similarly, to get a count of the number of elements in an array, use either ${#array_name[@]} or ${#array_name[*]}. ${#array_name} is the length (number of characters) of ${array_name[0]}, the first element of the array. Of empty arrays and empty elements &emptyarray; The relationship of ${array_name[@]} and ${array_name[*]} is analogous to that between $@ and $*. This powerful array notation has a number of uses. # Copying an array. array2=( "${array1[@]}" ) # or array2="${array1[@]}" # # However, this fails with "sparse" arrays, #+ arrays with holes (missing elements) in them, #+ as Jochen DeSmet points out. # ------------------------------------------ array1[0]=0 # array1[1] not assigned array1[2]=2 array2=( "${array1[@]}" ) # Copy it? echo ${array2[0]} # 0 echo ${array2[2]} # (null), should be 2 # ------------------------------------------ # Adding an element to an array. array=( "${array[@]}" "new element" ) # or array[${#array[*]}]="new element" # Thanks, S.C. The array=( element1 element2 ... elementN ) initialization operation, with the help of command substitution, makes it possible to load the contents of a text file into an array. #!/bin/bash filename=sample_file # cat sample_file # # 1 a b c # 2 d e fg declare -a array1 array1=( `cat "$filename"`) # Loads contents # List file to stdout #+ of $filename into array1. # # array1=( `cat "$filename" | tr '\n' ' '`) # change linefeeds in file to spaces. # Not necessary because Bash does word splitting, #+ changing linefeeds to spaces. echo ${array1[@]} # List the array. # 1 a b c 2 d e fg # # Each whitespace-separated "word" in the file #+ has been assigned to an element of the array. element_count=${#array1[*]} echo $element_count # 8 Clever scripting makes it possible to add array operations. Initializing arrays &arrayassign; Adding a superfluous declare -a statement to an array declaration may speed up execution of subsequent operations on the array. Copying and concatenating arrays ©array; More on concatenating arrays &arrayappend; -- Arrays permit deploying old familiar algorithms as shell scripts. Whether this is necessarily a good idea is left to the reader to decide. The Bubble Sort &bubble; -- Is it possible to nest arrays within arrays? #!/bin/bash # "Nested" array. # Michael Zick provided this example, #+ with corrections and clarifications by William Park. AnArray=( $(ls --inode --ignore-backups --almost-all \ --directory --full-time --color=none --time=status \ --sort=time -l ${PWD} ) ) # Commands and options. # Spaces are significant . . . and don't quote anything in the above. SubArray=( ${AnArray[@]:11:1} ${AnArray[@]:6:5} ) # This array has six elements: #+ SubArray=( [0]=${AnArray[11]} [1]=${AnArray[6]} [2]=${AnArray[7]} # [3]=${AnArray[8]} [4]=${AnArray[9]} [5]=${AnArray[10]} ) # # Arrays in Bash are (circularly) linked lists #+ of type string (char *). # So, this isn't actually a nested array, #+ but it's functionally similar. echo "Current directory and date of last status change:" echo "${SubArray[@]}" exit 0 -- Embedded arrays in combination with indirect references create some fascinating possibilities Embedded arrays and indirect references &embarr; -- Arrays enable implementing a shell script version of the Sieve of Eratosthenes. Of course, a resource-intensive application of this nature should really be written in a compiled language, such as C. It runs excruciatingly slowly as a script. The Sieve of Eratosthenes &ex68; The Sieve of Eratosthenes, Optimized &ex68a; Compare these array-based prime number generators with alternatives that do not use arrays, , and . -- Arrays lend themselves, to some extent, to emulating data structures for which Bash has no native support. Emulating a push-down stack &stackex; -- Fancy manipulation of array subscripts may require intermediate variables. For projects involving this, again consider using a more powerful programming language, such as Perl or C. Complex array application: <emphasis>Exploring a weird mathematical series</emphasis> &qfunction; -- Bash supports only one-dimensional arrays, though a little trickery permits simulating multi-dimensional ones. Simulating a two-dimensional array, then tilting it &twodim; A two-dimensional array is essentially equivalent to a one-dimensional one, but with additional addressing modes for referencing and manipulating the individual elements by row and column position. For an even more elaborate example of simulating a two-dimensional array, see . -- For more interesting scripts using arrays, see: <filename class="directory">/dev</filename> and <filename class="directory">/proc</filename> A Linux or UNIX filesystem typically has the /dev and /proc special-purpose directories. <filename class="directory">/dev</filename> The /dev directory contains entries for the physical devices that may or may not be present in the hardware. The entries in /dev provide mount points for physical and virtual devices. These entries use very little drive space. Some devices, such as /dev/null, /dev/zero, and /dev/urandom are virtual. They are not actual physical devices and exist only in software. For example, the hard drive partitions containing the mounted filesystem(s) have entries in /dev, as df shows. bash$ df Filesystem 1k-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on /dev/hda6 495876 222748 247527 48% / /dev/hda1 50755 3887 44248 9% /boot /dev/hda8 367013 13262 334803 4% /home /dev/hda5 1714416 1123624 503704 70% /usr Among other things, the /dev directory contains loopback devices, such as /dev/loop0. A loopback device is a gimmick that allows an ordinary file to be accessed as if it were a block device. A block device reads and/or writes data in chunks, or blocks, in contrast to a character device, which acesses data in character units. Examples of block devices are hard drives, CDROM drives, and flash drives. Examples of character devices are keyboards, modems, sound cards. This permits mounting an entire filesystem within a single large file. See and . A few of the pseudo-devices in /dev have other specialized uses, such as /dev/null, /dev/zero, /dev/urandom, /dev/sda1 (hard drive partition), /dev/udp (User Datagram Packet port), and /dev/tcp. For instance: To manually mount a USB flash drive, append the following line to /etc/fstab. Of course, the mount point /mnt/flashdrive must exist. If not, then, as root, mkdir /mnt/flashdrive. To actually mount the drive, use the following command: mount /mnt/flashdrive Newer Linux distros automount flash drives in the /media directory without user intervention. /dev/sda1 /mnt/flashdrive auto noauto,user,noatime 0 0 (See also .) Checking whether a disk is in the CD-burner (soft-linked to /dev/hdc): head -1 /dev/hdc # head: cannot open '/dev/hdc' for reading: No medium found # (No disc in the drive.) # head: error reading '/dev/hdc': Input/output error # (There is a disk in the drive, but it can't be read; #+ possibly it's an unrecorded CDR blank.) # Stream of characters and assorted gibberish # (There is a pre-recorded disk in the drive, #+ and this is raw output -- a stream of ASCII and binary data.) # Here we see the wisdom of using 'head' to limit the output #+ to manageable proportions, rather than 'cat' or something similar. # Now, it's just a matter of checking/parsing the output and taking #+ appropriate action. When executing a command on a /dev/tcp/$host/$port pseudo-device file, Bash opens a TCP connection to the associated socket. A socket is a communications node associated with a specific I/O port. (This is analogous to a hardware socket, or receptacle, for a connecting cable.) It permits data transfer between hardware devices on the same machine, between machines on the same network, between machines across different networks, and, of course, between machines at different locations on the Internet. The following examples assume an active Internet connection. Getting the time from nist.gov: bash$ cat </dev/tcp/time.nist.gov/13 53082 04-03-18 04:26:54 68 0 0 502.3 UTC(NIST) * [Mark contributed the above example.] Downloading a URL: bash$ exec 5<>/dev/tcp/www.net.cn/80 bash$ echo -e "GET / HTTP/1.0\n" >&5 bash$ cat <&5 [Thanks, Mark and Mihai Maties.] Using <filename>/dev/tcp</filename> for troubleshooting &devtcp; Playing music &musicscr; <filename class="directory">/proc</filename> The /proc directory is actually a pseudo-filesystem. The files in /proc mirror currently running system and kernel processes and contain information and statistics about them. bash$ cat /proc/devices Character devices: 1 mem 2 pty 3 ttyp 4 ttyS 5 cua 7 vcs 10 misc 14 sound 29 fb 36 netlink 128 ptm 136 pts 162 raw 254 pcmcia Block devices: 1 ramdisk 2 fd 3 ide0 9 md bash$ cat /proc/interrupts CPU0 0: 84505 XT-PIC timer 1: 3375 XT-PIC keyboard 2: 0 XT-PIC cascade 5: 1 XT-PIC soundblaster 8: 1 XT-PIC rtc 12: 4231 XT-PIC PS/2 Mouse 14: 109373 XT-PIC ide0 NMI: 0 ERR: 0 bash$ cat /proc/partitions major minor #blocks name rio rmerge rsect ruse wio wmerge wsect wuse running use aveq 3 0 3007872 hda 4472 22260 114520 94240 3551 18703 50384 549710 0 111550 644030 3 1 52416 hda1 27 395 844 960 4 2 14 180 0 800 1140 3 2 1 hda2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 165280 hda4 10 0 20 210 0 0 0 0 0 210 210 ... bash$ cat /proc/loadavg 0.13 0.42 0.27 2/44 1119 bash$ cat /proc/apm 1.16 1.2 0x03 0x01 0xff 0x80 -1% -1 ? bash$ cat /proc/acpi/battery/BAT0/info present: yes design capacity: 43200 mWh last full capacity: 36640 mWh battery technology: rechargeable design voltage: 10800 mV design capacity warning: 1832 mWh design capacity low: 200 mWh capacity granularity 1: 1 mWh capacity granularity 2: 1 mWh model number: IBM-02K6897 serial number: 1133 battery type: LION OEM info: Panasonic bash$ fgrep Mem /proc/meminfo MemTotal: 515216 kB MemFree: 266248 kB Shell scripts may extract data from certain of the files in /proc. Certain system commands, such as procinfo, free, vmstat, lsdev, and uptime do this as well. FS=iso # ISO filesystem support in kernel? grep $FS /proc/filesystems # iso9660 kernel_version=$( awk '{ print $3 }' /proc/version ) CPU=$( awk '/model name/ {print $5}' < /proc/cpuinfo ) if [ "$CPU" = "Pentium(R)" ] then run_some_commands ... else run_other_commands ... fi cpu_speed=$( fgrep "cpu MHz" /proc/cpuinfo | awk '{print $4}' ) # Current operating speed (in MHz) of the cpu on your machine. # On a laptop this may vary, depending on use of battery #+ or AC power. #!/bin/bash # get-commandline.sh # Get the command-line parameters of a process. OPTION=cmdline # Identify PID. pid=$( echo $(pidof "$1") | awk '{ print $1 }' ) # Get only first ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ of multiple instances. echo echo "Process ID of (first instance of) "$1" = $pid" echo -n "Command-line arguments: " cat /proc/"$pid"/"$OPTION" | xargs -0 echo # Formats output: ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ # (Thanks, Han Holl, for the fixup!) echo; echo # For example: # sh get-commandline.sh xterm + devfile="/proc/bus/usb/devices" text="Spd" USB1="Spd=12" USB2="Spd=480" bus_speed=$(fgrep -m 1 "$text" $devfile | awk '{print $9}') # ^^^^ Stop after first match. if [ "$bus_speed" = "$USB1" ] then echo "USB 1.1 port found." # Do something appropriate for USB 1.1. fi It is even possible to control certain peripherals with commands sent to the /proc directory. root# echo on > /proc/acpi/ibm/light This turns on the Thinklight in certain models of IBM/Lenovo Thinkpads. (May not work on all Linux distros.) Of course, caution is advised when writing to /proc. The /proc directory contains subdirectories with unusual numerical names. Every one of these names maps to the process ID of a currently running process. Within each of these subdirectories, there are a number of files that hold useful information about the corresponding process. The stat and status files keep running statistics on the process, the cmdline file holds the command-line arguments the process was invoked with, and the exe file is a symbolic link to the complete path name of the invoking process. There are a few more such files, but these seem to be the most interesting from a scripting standpoint. Finding the process associated with a PID &pidid; On-line connect status &constat; In general, it is dangerous to write to the files in /proc, as this can corrupt the filesystem or crash the machine. Of Zeros and Nulls Faultily faultless, icily regular, splendidly null Dead perfection; no more. --Alfred Lord Tennyson <anchor id="zeronull1"><filename>/dev/zero</filename> ... <filename>/dev/null</filename> Uses of /dev/null Think of /dev/null as a black hole. It is essentially the equivalent of a write-only file. Everything written to it disappears. Attempts to read or output from it result in nothing. All the same, /dev/null can be quite useful from both the command line and in scripts. Suppressing stdout. cat $filename >/dev/null # Contents of the file will not list to stdout. Suppressing stderr (from ). rm $badname 2>/dev/null # So error messages [stderr] deep-sixed. Suppressing output from both stdout and stderr. cat $filename 2>/dev/null >/dev/null # If "$filename" does not exist, there will be no error message output. # If "$filename" does exist, the contents of the file will not list to stdout. # Therefore, no output at all will result from the above line of code. # # This can be useful in situations where the return code from a command #+ needs to be tested, but no output is desired. # # cat $filename &>/dev/null # also works, as Baris Cicek points out. Deleting contents of a file, but preserving the file itself, with all attendant permissions (from and ): cat /dev/null > /var/log/messages # : > /var/log/messages has same effect, but does not spawn a new process. cat /dev/null > /var/log/wtmp Automatically emptying the contents of a logfile (especially good for dealing with those nasty cookies sent by commercial Web sites): Hiding the cookie jar # Obsolete Netscape browser. # Same principle applies to newer browsers. if [ -f ~/.netscape/cookies ] # Remove, if exists. then rm -f ~/.netscape/cookies fi ln -s /dev/null ~/.netscape/cookies # All cookies now get sent to a black hole, rather than saved to disk. Uses of /dev/zero Like /dev/null, /dev/zero is a pseudo-device file, but it actually produces a stream of nulls (binary zeros, not the ASCII kind). Output written to /dev/zero disappears, and it is fairly difficult to actually read the nulls emitted there, though it can be done with od or a hex editor. The chief use of /dev/zero is creating an initialized dummy file of predetermined length intended as a temporary swap file. Setting up a swapfile using <filename>/dev/zero</filename> &ex73; Another application of /dev/zero is to zero out a file of a designated size for a special purpose, such as mounting a filesystem on a loopback device (see ) or securely deleting a file (see ). Creating a ramdisk &ramdisk; In addition to all the above, /dev/zero is needed by ELF (Executable and Linking Format) UNIX/Linux binaries. Debugging Debugging is twice as hard as writing the code in the first place. Therefore, if you write the code as cleverly as possible, you are, by definition, not smart enough to debug it. --Brian Kernighan The Bash shell contains no built-in debugger, and only bare-bones debugging-specific commands and constructs. Syntax errors or outright typos in the script generate cryptic error messages that are often of no help in debugging a non-functional script. A buggy script &ex74; Output from script: ./ex74.sh: [37: command not found What's wrong with the above script? Hint: after the if. Missing <link linkend="keywordref">keyword</link> &missingkeyword; Output from script: missing-keyword.sh: line 10: syntax error: unexpected end of file Note that the error message does not necessarily reference the line in which the error occurs, but the line where the Bash interpreter finally becomes aware of the error. Error messages may disregard comment lines in a script when reporting the line number of a syntax error. What if the script executes, but does not work as expected? This is the all too familiar logic error. <firstterm>test24</firstterm>: another buggy script &ex75; Try to find out what's wrong with by uncommenting the echo "$badname" line. Echo statements are useful for seeing whether what you expect is actually what you get. In this particular case, rm "$badname" will not give the desired results because $badname should not be quoted. Placing it in quotes ensures that rm has only one argument (it will match only one filename). A partial fix is to remove to quotes from $badname and to reset $IFS to contain only a newline, IFS=$'\n'. However, there are simpler ways of going about it. # Correct methods of deleting filenames containing spaces. rm *\ * rm *" "* rm *' '* # Thank you. S.C. Summarizing the symptoms of a buggy script, It bombs with a syntax error message, or It runs, but does not work as expected (logic error). It runs, works as expected, but has nasty side effects (logic bomb). Tools for debugging non-working scripts include Inserting echo statements at critical points in the script to trace the variables, and otherwise give a snapshot of what is going on. Even better is an echo that echoes only when debug is on. ### debecho (debug-echo), by Stefano Falsetto ### ### Will echo passed parameters only if DEBUG is set to a value. ### debecho () { if [ ! -z "$DEBUG" ]; then echo "$1" >&2 # ^^^ to stderr fi } DEBUG=on Whatever=whatnot debecho $Whatever # whatnot DEBUG= Whatever=notwhat debecho $Whatever # (Will not echo.) Using the tee filter to check processes or data flows at critical points. Setting option flags sh -n scriptname checks for syntax errors without actually running the script. This is the equivalent of inserting set -n or set -o noexec into the script. Note that certain types of syntax errors can slip past this check. sh -v scriptname echoes each command before executing it. This is the equivalent of inserting set -v or set -o verbose in the script. The and flags work well together. sh -nv scriptname gives a verbose syntax check. sh -x scriptname echoes the result each command, but in an abbreviated manner. This is the equivalent of inserting set -x or set -o xtrace in the script. Inserting set -u or set -o nounset in the script runs it, but gives an unbound variable error message at each attempt to use an undeclared variable. Using an assert function to test a variable or condition at critical points in a script. (This is an idea borrowed from C.) Testing a condition with an <firstterm>assert</firstterm> &assert; Using the $LINENO variable and the caller builtin. Trapping at exit. The exit command in a script triggers a signal 0, terminating the process, that is, the script itself. By convention, signal 0 is assigned to exit. It is often useful to trap the exit, forcing a printout of variables, for example. The trap must be the first command in the script. <anchor id="trapref1">Trapping signals trap Specifies an action on receipt of a signal; also useful for debugging. A signal is a message sent to a process, either by the kernel or another process, telling it to take some specified action (usually to terminate). For example, hitting a Control-C sends a user interrupt, an INT signal, to a running program. A simple instance: trap '' 2 # Ignore interrupt 2 (Control-C), with no action specified. trap 'echo "Control-C disabled."' 2 # Message when Control-C pressed. Trapping at exit &ex76; Cleaning up after <keycap>Control-C</keycap> &online; The argument to trap causes a specified action to execute after every command in a script. This permits tracing variables, for example. Tracing a variable &vartrace; Of course, the trap command has other uses aside from debugging, such as disabling certain keystrokes within a script (see ). Running multiple processes (on an SMP box) &multipleproc; trap '' SIGNAL (two adjacent apostrophes) disables SIGNAL for the remainder of the script. trap SIGNAL restores the functioning of SIGNAL once more. This is useful to protect a critical portion of a script from an undesirable interrupt. trap '' 2 # Signal 2 is Control-C, now disabled. command command command trap 2 # Reenables Control-C Version 3 of Bash adds the following internal variables for use by the debugger. $BASH_ARGC Number of command-line arguments passed to script, similar to $#. $BASH_ARGV Final command-line parameter passed to script, equivalent ${!#}. $BASH_COMMAND Command currently executing. $BASH_EXECUTION_STRING The option string following the option to Bash. $BASH_LINENO In a function, indicates the line number of the function call. $BASH_REMATCH Array variable associated with =~ conditional regex matching. $BASH_SOURCE Same as $0. $BASH_SUBSHELL Options Options are settings that change shell and/or script behavior. The set command enables options within a script. At the point in the script where you want the options to take effect, use set -o option-name or, in short form, set -option-abbrev. These two forms are equivalent. #!/bin/bash set -o verbose # Echoes all commands before executing. #!/bin/bash set -v # Exact same effect as above. To disable an option within a script, use set +o option-name or set +option-abbrev. #!/bin/bash set -o verbose # Command echoing on. command ... command set +o verbose # Command echoing off. command # Not echoed. set -v # Command echoing on. command ... command set +v # Command echoing off. command exit 0 An alternate method of enabling options in a script is to specify them immediately following the #! script header. #!/bin/bash -x # # Body of script follows. It is also possible to enable script options from the command line. Some options that will not work with set are available this way. Among these are -i, force script to run interactive. bash -v script-name bash -o verbose script-name The following is a listing of some useful options. They may be specified in either abbreviated form (preceded by a single dash) or by complete name (preceded by a double dash or by ). Bash options Abbreviation Name Effect noclobber Prevent overwriting of files by redirection (may be overridden by >|) (none) List double-quoted strings prefixed by $, but do not execute commands in script allexport Export all defined variables notify Notify when jobs running in background terminate (not of much use in a script) (none) Read commands from ... errexit Abort script at first error, when a command exits with non-zero status (except in until or while loops, if-tests, list constructs) noglob Filename expansion (globbing) disabled interactive Script runs in interactive mode noexec Read commands in script, but do not execute them (syntax check) (none) Invoke the Option-Name option POSIX Change the behavior of Bash, or invoked script, to conform to POSIX standard. pipe failure Causes a pipeline to return the exit status of the last command in the pipe that returned a non-zero return value. privileged Script runs as suid (caution!) restricted Script runs in restricted mode (see ). stdin Read commands from stdin (none) Exit after first command nounset Attempt to use undefined variable outputs error message, and forces an exit verbose Print each command to stdout before executing it xtrace Similar to , but expands commands (none) End of options flag. All other arguments are positional parameters. (none) Unset positional parameters. If arguments given (-- arg1 arg2), positional parameters set to arguments.

Gotchas Turandot: Gli enigmi sono tre, la morte una! Caleph: No, no! Gli enigmi sono tre, una la vita! --Puccini Here are some (non-recommended!) scripting practices that will bring excitement to an otherwise dull life. Assigning reserved words or characters to variable names. case=value0 # Causes problems. 23skidoo=value1 # Also problems. # Variable names starting with a digit are reserved by the shell. # Try _23skidoo=value1. Starting variables with an underscore is o.k. # However . . . using just the underscore will not work. _=25 echo $_ # $_ is a special variable set to last arg of last command. xyz((!*=value2 # Causes severe problems. # As of version 3 of Bash, periods are not allowed within variable names. Using a hyphen or other reserved characters in a variable name (or function name). var-1=23 # Use 'var_1' instead. function-whatever () # Error # Use 'function_whatever ()' instead. # As of version 3 of Bash, periods are not allowed within function names. function.whatever () # Error # Use 'functionWhatever ()' instead. Using the same name for a variable and a function. This can make a script difficult to understand. do_something () { echo "This function does something with \"$1\"." } do_something=do_something do_something do_something # All this is legal, but highly confusing. Using whitespace inappropriately. In contrast to other programming languages, Bash can be quite finicky about whitespace. var1 = 23 # 'var1=23' is correct. # On line above, Bash attempts to execute command "var1" # with the arguments "=" and "23". let c = $a - $b # 'let c=$a-$b' or 'let "c = $a - $b"' are correct. if [ $a -le 5] # if [ $a -le 5 ] is correct. # if [ "$a" -le 5 ] is even better. # [[ $a -le 5 ]] also works. Not terminating with a semicolon the final command in a code block within curly brackets. { ls -l; df; echo "Done." } # bash: syntax error: unexpected end of file { ls -l; df; echo "Done."; } # ^ ### Final command needs semicolon. Assuming uninitialized variables (variables before a value is assigned to them) are zeroed out. An uninitialized variable has a value of null, not zero. #!/bin/bash echo "uninitialized_var = $uninitialized_var" # uninitialized_var = Mixing up = and -eq in a test. Remember, = is for comparing literal variables and -eq for integers. if [ "$a" = 273 ] # Is $a an integer or string? if [ "$a" -eq 273 ] # If $a is an integer. # Sometimes you can interchange -eq and = without adverse consequences. # However . . . a=273.0 # Not an integer. if [ "$a" = 273 ] then echo "Comparison works." else echo "Comparison does not work." fi # Comparison does not work. # Same with a=" 273" and a="0273". # Likewise, problems trying to use "-eq" with non-integer values. if [ "$a" -eq 273.0 ] then echo "a = $a" fi # Aborts with an error message. # test.sh: [: 273.0: integer expression expected Misusing string comparison operators. Numerical and string comparison are not equivalent &badop; Sometimes variables within test brackets ([ ]) need to be quoted (double quotes). Failure to do so may cause unexpected behavior. See , , and . Quoting a variable containing whitespace prevents splitting. Sometimes this produces unintended consequences. Commands issued from a script may fail to execute because the script owner lacks execute permission for them. If a user cannot invoke a command from the command line, then putting it into a script will likewise fail. Try changing the attributes of the command in question, perhaps even setting the suid bit (as root, of course). Attempting to use - as a redirection operator (which it is not) will usually result in an unpleasant surprise. command1 2> - | command2 # Trying to redirect error output of command1 into a pipe . . . # . . . will not work. command1 2>& - | command2 # Also futile. Thanks, S.C. Using Bash version 2+ functionality may cause a bailout with error messages. Older Linux machines may have version 1.XX of Bash as the default installation. #!/bin/bash minimum_version=2 # Since Chet Ramey is constantly adding features to Bash, # you may set $minimum_version to 2.XX, 3.XX, or whatever is appropriate. E_BAD_VERSION=80 if [ "$BASH_VERSION" \< "$minimum_version" ] then echo "This script works only with Bash, version $minimum or greater." echo "Upgrade strongly recommended." exit $E_BAD_VERSION fi ... Using Bash-specific functionality in a Bourne shell script (#!/bin/sh) on a non-Linux machine may cause unexpected behavior. A Linux system usually aliases sh to bash, but this does not necessarily hold true for a generic UNIX machine. Using undocumented features in Bash turns out to be a dangerous practice. In previous releases of this book there were several scripts that depended on the feature that, although the maximum value of an exit or return value was 255, that limit did not apply to negative integers. Unfortunately, in version 2.05b and later, that loophole disappeared. See . A script with DOS-type newlines (\r\n) will fail to execute, since #!/bin/bash\r\n is not recognized, not the same as the expected #!/bin/bash\n. The fix is to convert the script to UNIX-style newlines. #!/bin/bash echo "Here" unix2dos $0 # Script changes itself to DOS format. chmod 755 $0 # Change back to execute permission. # The 'unix2dos' command removes execute permission. ./$0 # Script tries to run itself again. # But it won't work as a DOS file. echo "There" exit 0 A shell script headed by #!/bin/sh will not run in full Bash-compatibility mode. Some Bash-specific functions might be disabled. Scripts that need complete access to all the Bash-specific extensions should start with #!/bin/bash. Putting whitespace in front of the terminating limit string of a here document will cause unexpected behavior in a script. Putting more than one echo statement in a function whose output is captured. add2 () { echo "Whatever ... " # Delete this line! let "retval = $1 + $2" echo $retval } num1=12 num2=43 echo "Sum of $num1 and $num2 = $(add2 $num1 $num2)" # Sum of 12 and 43 = Whatever ... # 55 # The "echoes" concatenate. This will not work. A script may not export variables back to its parent process, the shell, or to the environment. Just as we learned in biology, a child process can inherit from a parent, but not vice versa. WHATEVER=/home/bozo export WHATEVER exit 0 bash$ echo $WHATEVER bash$ Sure enough, back at the command prompt, $WHATEVER remains unset. Setting and manipulating variables in a subshell, then attempting to use those same variables outside the scope of the subshell will result an unpleasant surprise. Subshell Pitfalls &subpit; Piping echo output to a read may produce unexpected results. In this scenario, the read acts as if it were running in a subshell. Instead, use the set command (as in ). Piping the output of <firstterm>echo</firstterm> to a <firstterm>read</firstterm> &badread; In fact, as Anthony Richardson points out, piping to any loop can cause a similar problem. # Loop piping troubles. # This example by Anthony Richardson, #+ with addendum by Wilbert Berendsen. foundone=false find $HOME -type f -atime +30 -size 100k | while true do read f echo "$f is over 100KB and has not been accessed in over 30 days" echo "Consider moving the file to archives." foundone=true # ------------------------------------ echo "Subshell level = $BASH_SUBSHELL" # Subshell level = 1 # Yes, we're inside a subshell. # ------------------------------------ done # foundone will always be false here since it is #+ set to true inside a subshell if [ $foundone = false ] then echo "No files need archiving." fi # =====================Now, here is the correct way:================= foundone=false for f in $(find $HOME -type f -atime +30 -size 100k) # No pipe here. do echo "$f is over 100KB and has not been accessed in over 30 days" echo "Consider moving the file to archives." foundone=true done if [ $foundone = false ] then echo "No files need archiving." fi # ==================And here is another alternative================== # Places the part of the script that reads the variables #+ within a code block, so they share the same subshell. # Thank you, W.B. find $HOME -type f -atime +30 -size 100k | { foundone=false while read f do echo "$f is over 100KB and has not been accessed in over 30 days" echo "Consider moving the file to archives." foundone=true done if ! $foundone then echo "No files need archiving." fi } A related problem occurs when trying to write the stdout of a tail -f piped to grep. tail -f /var/log/messages | grep "$ERROR_MSG" >> error.log # The "error.log" file will not have anything written to it. Using suid commands within scripts is risky, as it may compromise system security. Setting the suid permission on the script itself has no effect in Linux and most other UNIX flavors. Using shell scripts for CGI programming may be problematic. Shell script variables are not typesafe, and this can cause undesirable behavior as far as CGI is concerned. Moreover, it is difficult to cracker-proof shell scripts. Bash does not handle the double slash (//) string correctly. Bash scripts written for Linux or BSD systems may need fixups to run on a commercial UNIX (or Apple OSX) machine. Such scripts often employ the GNU set of commands and filters, which have greater functionality than their generic UNIX counterparts. This is particularly true of such text processing utilites as tr. Danger is near thee -- Beware, beware, beware, beware. Many brave hearts are asleep in the deep. So beware -- Beware. --A.J. Lamb and H.W. Petrie Scripting With Style Get into the habit of writing shell scripts in a structured and systematic manner. Even on-the-fly and written on the back of an envelope scripts will benefit if you take a few minutes to plan and organize your thoughts before sitting down and coding. Herewith are a few stylistic guidelines. This is not (necessarily) intended as an Official Shell Scripting Stylesheet. Unofficial Shell Scripting Stylesheet Comment your code. This makes it easier for others to understand (and appreciate), and easier for you to maintain. PASS="$PASS${MATRIX:$(($RANDOM%${#MATRIX})):1}" # It made perfect sense when you wrote it last year, #+ but now it's a complete mystery. # (From Antek Sawicki's "pw.sh" script.) Add descriptive headers to your scripts and functions. #!/bin/bash #************************************************# # xyz.sh # # written by Bozo Bozeman # # July 05, 2001 # # # # Clean up project files. # #************************************************# E_BADDIR=85 # No such directory. projectdir=/home/bozo/projects # Directory to clean up. # --------------------------------------------------------- # # cleanup_pfiles () # # Removes all files in designated directory. # # Parameter: $target_directory # # Returns: 0 on success, $E_BADDIR if something went wrong. # # --------------------------------------------------------- # cleanup_pfiles () { if [ ! -d "$1" ] # Test if target directory exists. then echo "$1 is not a directory." return $E_BADDIR fi rm -f "$1"/* return 0 # Success. } cleanup_pfiles $projectdir exit $? Avoid using magic numbers, In this context, magic numbers have an entirely different meaning than the magic numbers used to designate file types. that is, hard-wired literal constants. Use meaningful variable names instead. This makes the script easier to understand and permits making changes and updates without breaking the application. if [ -f /var/log/messages ] then ... fi # A year later, you decide to change the script to check /var/log/syslog. # It is now necessary to manually change the script, instance by instance, #+ and hope nothing breaks. # A better way: LOGFILE=/var/log/messages # Only line that needs to be changed. if [ -f "$LOGFILE" ] then ... fi Choose descriptive names for variables and functions. fl=`ls -al $dirname` # Cryptic. file_listing=`ls -al $dirname` # Better. MAXVAL=10 # All caps used for a script constant. while [ "$index" -le "$MAXVAL" ] ... E_NOTFOUND=95 # Uppercase for an errorcode, #+ and name prefixed with E_. if [ ! -e "$filename" ] then echo "File $filename not found." exit $E_NOTFOUND fi MAIL_DIRECTORY=/var/spool/mail/bozo # Uppercase for an environmental export MAIL_DIRECTORY #+ variable. GetAnswer () # Mixed case works well for a { #+ function name, especially prompt=$1 #+ when it improves legibility. echo -n $prompt read answer return $answer } GetAnswer "What is your favorite number? " favorite_number=$? echo $favorite_number _uservariable=23 # Permissible, but not recommended. # It's better for user-defined variables not to start with an underscore. # Leave that for system variables. Use exit codes in a systematic and meaningful way. E_WRONG_ARGS=95 ... ... exit $E_WRONG_ARGS See also . Ender suggests using the exit codes in /usr/include/sysexits.h in shell scripts, though these are primarily intended for C and C++ programming. Use standardized parameter flags for script invocation. Ender proposes the following set of flags. -a All: Return all information (including hidden file info). -b Brief: Short version, usually for other scripts. -c Copy, concatenate, etc. -d Daily: Use information from the whole day, and not merely information for a specific instance/user. -e Extended/Elaborate: (often does not include hidden file info). -h Help: Verbose usage w/descs, aux info, discussion, help. See also -V. -l Log output of script. -m Manual: Launch man-page for base command. -n Numbers: Numerical data only. -r Recursive: All files in a directory (and/or all sub-dirs). -s Setup & File Maintenance: Config files for this script. -u Usage: List of invocation flags for the script. -v Verbose: Human readable output, more or less formatted. -V Version / License / Copy(right|left) / Contribs (email too). See also . Break complex scripts into simpler modules. Use functions where appropriate. See . Don't use a complex construct where a simpler one will do. COMMAND if [ $? -eq 0 ] ... # Redundant and non-intuitive. if COMMAND ... # More concise (if perhaps not quite as legible). ... reading the UNIX source code to the Bourne shell (/bin/sh). I was shocked at how much simple algorithms could be made cryptic, and therefore useless, by a poor choice of code style. I asked myself, Could someone be proud of this code? --Landon Noll Miscellany Nobody really knows what the Bourne shell's grammar is. Even examination of the source code is little help. --Tom Duff Interactive and non-interactive shells and scripts An interactive shell reads commands from user input on a tty. Among other things, such a shell reads startup files on activation, displays a prompt, and enables job control by default. The user can interact with the shell. A shell running a script is always a non-interactive shell. All the same, the script can still access its tty. It is even possible to emulate an interactive shell in a script. #!/bin/bash MY_PROMPT='$ ' while : do echo -n "$MY_PROMPT" read line eval "$line" done exit 0 # This example script, and much of the above explanation supplied by # Stéphane Chazelas (thanks again). Let us consider an interactive script to be one that requires input from the user, usually with read statements (see ). Real life is actually a bit messier than that. For now, assume an interactive script is bound to a tty, a script that a user has invoked from the console or an xterm. Init and startup scripts are necessarily non-interactive, since they must run without human intervention. Many administrative and system maintenance scripts are likewise non-interactive. Unvarying repetitive tasks cry out for automation by non-interactive scripts. Non-interactive scripts can run in the background, but interactive ones hang, waiting for input that never comes. Handle that difficulty by having an expect script or embedded here document feed input to an interactive script running as a background job. In the simplest case, redirect a file to supply input to a read statement (read variable <file). These particular workarounds make possible general purpose scripts that run in either interactive or non-interactive modes. If a script needs to test whether it is running in an interactive shell, it is simply a matter of finding whether the prompt variable, $PS1 is set. (If the user is being prompted for input, then the script needs to display a prompt.) if [ -z $PS1 ] # no prompt? then # non-interactive ... else # interactive ... fi Alternatively, the script can test for the presence of option i in the $- flag. case $- in *i*) # interactive shell ;; *) # non-interactive shell ;; # (Courtesy of "UNIX F.A.Q.," 1993) Scripts may be forced to run in interactive mode with the -i option or with a #!/bin/bash -i header. Be aware that this can cause erratic script behavior or show error messages even when no error is present. Operator Precedence In a script, operations execute in order of precedence: the higher precedence operations execute before the lower precedence ones. Precedence, in this context, has approximately the same meaning as priority &opprectable; In practice, all you really need to remember is the following: The My Dear Aunt Sally mantra (multiply, divide, add, subtract) for the familiar arithmetic operations. The compound logical operators, &&, ||, -a, and -o have low precedence. The order of evaluation of equal-precedence operators is usually left-to-right. Now, let's utilize our knowledge of operator precedence to analyze a couple of lines from the /etc/init.d/functions file, as found in the Fedora Core Linux distro. while [ -n "$remaining" -a "$retry" -gt 0 ]; do # This looks rather daunting at first glance. # Separate the conditions: while [ -n "$remaining" -a "$retry" -gt 0 ]; do # --condition 1-- ^^ --condition 2- # If variable "$remaining" is not zero length #+ AND (-a) #+ variable "$retry" is greater-than zero #+ then #+ the [ expresion-within-condition-brackets ] returns success (0) #+ and the while-loop executes an iteration. # ============================================================== # Evaluate "condition 1" and "condition 2" ***before*** #+ ANDing them. Why? Because the AND (-a) has a lower precedence #+ than the -n and -gt operators, #+ and therefore gets evaluated *last*. ################################################################# if [ -f /etc/sysconfig/i18n -a -z "${NOLOCALE:-}" ] ; then # Again, separate the conditions: if [ -f /etc/sysconfig/i18n -a -z "${NOLOCALE:-}" ] ; then # --condition 1--------- ^^ --condition 2----- # If file "/etc/sysconfig/i18n" exists #+ AND (-a) #+ variable $NOLOCALE is zero length #+ then #+ the [ test-expresion-within-condition-brackets ] returns success (0) #+ and the commands following execute. # # As before, the AND (-a) gets evaluated *last* #+ because it has the lowest precedence of the operators within #+ the test brackets. # ============================================================== # Note: # ${NOLOCALE:-} is a parameter expansion that seems redundant. # But, if $NOLOCALE has not been declared, it gets set to *null*, #+ in effect declaring it. # This makes a difference in some contexts. To avoid confusion or error in a complex sequence of test operators, break up the sequence into bracketed sections. if [ "$v1" -gt "$v2" -o "$v1" -lt "$v2" -a -e "$filename" ] # Unclear what's going on here... if [[ "$v1" -gt "$v2" ]] || [[ "$v1" -lt "$v2" ]] && [[ -e "$filename" ]] # Much better -- the condition tests are grouped in logical sections. Shell Wrappers A wrapper is a shell script that embeds a system command or utility, that accepts and passes a set of parameters to that command. Quite a number of Linux utilities are, in fact, shell wrappers. Some examples are /usr/bin/pdf2ps, /usr/bin/batch, and /usr/bin/xmkmf. Wrapping a script around a complex command line simplifies invoking it. This is expecially useful with sed and awk. A sed script sed sed or awk script awk awk script would normally be invoked from the command line by a sed -e 'commands' or awk 'commands'. Embedding such a script in a Bash script permits calling it more simply, and makes it reusable. This also enables combining the functionality of sed and awk, for example piping the output of a set of sed commands to awk. As a saved executable file, you can then repeatedly invoke it in its original form or modified, without the inconvenience of retyping it on the command line. <firstterm>shell wrapper</firstterm> &ex3; A slightly more complex <firstterm>shell wrapper</firstterm> &ex4; A generic <firstterm>shell wrapper</firstterm> that writes to a logfile &loggingwrapper; A <firstterm>shell wrapper</firstterm> around an awk script &prasc; A <firstterm>shell wrapper</firstterm> around another awk script &coltotaler; For those scripts needing a single do-it-all tool, a Swiss army knife, there is Perl. Perl combines the capabilities of sed and awk, and throws in a large subset of C, to boot. It is modular and contains support for everything ranging from object-oriented programming up to and including the kitchen sink. Short Perl scripts lend themselves to embedding within shell scripts, and there may be some substance to the claim that Perl can totally replace shell scripting (though the author of the ABS Guide remains skeptical). Perl embedded in a <firstterm>Bash</firstterm> script &ex56; It is even possible to combine a Bash script and Perl script within the same file. Depending on how the script is invoked, either the Bash part or the Perl part will execute. Bash and Perl scripts combined &bashandperl; bash$ bash bashandperl.sh Greetings from the Bash part of the script. bash$ perl -x bashandperl.sh Greetings from the Perl part of the script. One interesting example of a complex shell wrapper is Martin Matusiak's undvd script, which provides an easy-to-use command-line interface to the complex mencoder utility. Another example is Itzchak Rehberg's Ext3Undel, a set of scripts to recover deleted file on an ext3 filesystem. Tests and Comparisons: Alternatives For tests, the [[ ]] construct may be more appropriate than [ ]. Likewise, arithmetic comparisons might benefit from the (( )) construct. a=8 # All of the comparisons below are equivalent. test "$a" -lt 16 && echo "yes, $a < 16" # "and list" /bin/test "$a" -lt 16 && echo "yes, $a < 16" [ "$a" -lt 16 ] && echo "yes, $a < 16" [[ $a -lt 16 ]] && echo "yes, $a < 16" # Quoting variables within (( a < 16 )) && echo "yes, $a < 16" # [[ ]] and (( )) not necessary. city="New York" # Again, all of the comparisons below are equivalent. test "$city" \< Paris && echo "Yes, Paris is greater than $city" # Greater ASCII order. /bin/test "$city" \< Paris && echo "Yes, Paris is greater than $city" [ "$city" \< Paris ] && echo "Yes, Paris is greater than $city" [[ $city < Paris ]] && echo "Yes, Paris is greater than $city" # Need not quote $city. # Thank you, S.C. A script calling itself (recursion) Can a script recursively call itself? Indeed. A (useless) script that recursively calls itself &recurse; A (useful) script that recursively calls itself &pbook; Another (useful) script that recursively calls itself &usrmnt; Too many levels of recursion can exhaust the script's stack space, causing a segfault. <quote>Colorizing</quote> Scripts The ANSI ANSI is, of course, the acronym for the American National Standards Institute. This august body establishes and maintains various technical and industrial standards. escape sequences set screen attributes, such as bold text, and color of foreground and background. DOS batch files commonly used ANSI escape codes for color output, and so can Bash scripts. A <quote>colorized</quote> address database &ex30a; Drawing a box &drawbox; The simplest, and perhaps most useful ANSI escape sequence is bold text, \033[1m ... \033[0m. The \033 represents an escape, the [1 turns on the bold attribute, while the [0 switches it off. The m terminates each term of the escape sequence. bash$ echo -e "\033[1mThis is bold text.\033[0m" A similar escape sequence switches on the underline attribute (on an rxvt and an aterm). bash$ echo -e "\033[4mThis is underlined text.\033[0m" With an echo, the option enables the escape sequences. Other escape sequences change the text and/or background color. bash$ echo -e '\E[34;47mThis prints in blue.'; tput sgr0 bash$ echo -e '\E[33;44m'"yellow text on blue background"; tput sgr0 bash$ echo -e '\E[1;33;44m'"BOLD yellow text on blue background"; tput sgr0 It's usually advisable to set the bold attribute for light-colored foreground text. The tput sgr0 restores the terminal settings to normal. Omitting this lets all subsequent output from that particular terminal remain blue. Since tput sgr0 fails to restore terminal settings under certain circumstances, echo -ne \E[0m may be a better choice. Use the following template for writing colored text on a colored background. echo -e '\E[COLOR1;COLOR2mSome text goes here.' The \E[ begins the escape sequence. The semicolon-separated numbers COLOR1 and COLOR2 specify a foreground and a background color, according to the table below. (The order of the numbers does not matter, since the foreground and background numbers fall in non-overlapping ranges.) The m terminates the escape sequence, and the text begins immediately after that. Note also that single quotes enclose the remainder of the command sequence following the echo -e. The numbers in the following table work for an rxvt terminal. Results may vary for other terminal emulators. Numbers representing colors in Escape Sequences Color Foreground Background 30 40 31 41 32 42 33 43 34 44 35 45 36 46 37 47

Echoing colored text &colorecho; A <quote>horserace</quote> game &horserace; See also , , and . There is, however, a major problem with all this. ANSI escape sequences are emphatically non-portable. What works fine on some terminal emulators (or the console) may work differently, or not at all, on others. A colorized script that looks stunning on the script author's machine may produce unreadable output on someone else's. This somewhat compromises the usefulness of colorizing scripts, and possibly relegates this technique to the status of a gimmick. Colorized scripts are probably inappropriate in a commercial setting, i.e., your supervisor might disapprove. Moshe Jacobson's color utility (http://runslinux.net/projects.html#color) considerably simplifies using ANSI escape sequences. It substitutes a clean and logical syntax for the clumsy constructs just discussed. Henry/teikedvl has likewise created a utility (http://scriptechocolor.sourceforge.net/) to simplify creation of colorized scripts. Optimizations Most shell scripts are quick 'n dirty solutions to non-complex problems. As such, optimizing them for speed is not much of an issue. Consider the case, though, where a script carries out an important task, does it well, but runs too slowly. Rewriting it in a compiled language may not be a palatable option. The simplest fix would be to rewrite the parts of the script that slow it down. Is it possible to apply principles of code optimization even to a lowly shell script? Check the loops in the script. Time consumed by repetitive operations adds up quickly. If at all possible, remove time-consuming operations from within loops. Use builtin commands in preference to system commands. Builtins execute faster and usually do not launch a subshell when invoked. Avoid unnecessary commands, particularly in a pipe. cat "$file" | grep "$word" grep "$word" "$file" # The above command lines have an identical effect, #+ but the second runs faster since it launches one fewer subprocess. The cat command seems especially prone to overuse in scripts. Use the time and times tools to profile computation-intensive commands. Consider rewriting time-critical code sections in C, or even in assembler. Try to minimize file I/O. Bash is not particularly efficient at handling files, so consider using more appropriate tools for this within the script, such as awk or Perl. Write your scripts in a modular and coherent form, This usually means liberal use of functions. so they can be reorganized and tightened up as necessary. Some of the optimization techniques applicable to high-level languages may work for scripts, but others, such as loop unrolling, are mostly irrelevant. Above all, use common sense. For an excellent demonstration of how optimization can dramatically reduce the execution time of a script, see . Assorted Tips Ideas for more powerful scripts You have a problem that you want to solve by writing a Bash script. Unfortunately, you don't know quite where to start. One method is to plunge right in and code those parts of the script that come easily, and write the hard parts as pseudo-code. #!/bin/bash ARGCOUNT=1 # Need name as argument. E_WRONGARGS=65 if [ number-of-arguments is-not-equal-to "$ARGCOUNT" ] # ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ # Can't figure out how to code this . . . #+ . . . so write it in pseudo-code. then echo "Usage: name-of-script name" # ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ More pseudo-code. exit $E_WRONGARGS fi . . . exit 0 # Later on, substitute working code for the pseudo-code. # Line 6 becomes: if [ $# -ne "$ARGCOUNT" ] # Line 12 becomes: echo "Usage: `basename $0` name" For an example of using pseudo-code, see the Square Root exercise. To keep a record of which user scripts have run during a particular session or over a number of sessions, add the following lines to each script you want to keep track of. This will keep a continuing file record of the script names and invocation times. # Append (>>) following to end of each script tracked. whoami>> $SAVE_FILE # User invoking the script. echo $0>> $SAVE_FILE # Script name. date>> $SAVE_FILE # Date and time. echo>> $SAVE_FILE # Blank line as separator. # Of course, SAVE_FILE defined and exported as environmental variable in ~/.bashrc #+ (something like ~/.scripts-run) The >> operator appends lines to a file. What if you wish to prepend a line to an existing file, that is, to paste it in at the beginning? file=data.txt title="***This is the title line of data text file***" echo $title | cat - $file >$file.new # "cat -" concatenates stdout to $file. # End result is #+ to write a new file with $title appended at *beginning*. This is a simplified variant of the script given earlier. And, of course, sed can also do this. A shell script may act as an embedded command inside another shell script, a Tcl or wish script, or even a Makefile. It can be invoked as an external shell command in a C program using the system() call, i.e., system("script_name");. Setting a variable to the contents of an embedded sed or awk script increases the readability of the surrounding shell wrapper. See and . Put together files containing your favorite and most useful definitions and functions. As necessary, include one or more of these library files in scripts with either the dot (.) or source command. # SCRIPT LIBRARY # ------ ------- # Note: # No "#!" here. # No "live code" either. # Useful variable definitions ROOT_UID=0 # Root has $UID 0. E_NOTROOT=101 # Not root user error. MAXRETVAL=255 # Maximum (positive) return value of a function. SUCCESS=0 FAILURE=-1 # Functions Usage () # "Usage:" message. { if [ -z "$1" ] # No arg passed. then msg=filename else msg=$@ fi echo "Usage: `basename $0` "$msg"" } Check_if_root () # Check if root running script. { # From "ex39.sh" example. if [ "$UID" -ne "$ROOT_UID" ] then echo "Must be root to run this script." exit $E_NOTROOT fi } CreateTempfileName () # Creates a "unique" temp filename. { # From "ex51.sh" example. prefix=temp suffix=`eval date +%s` Tempfilename=$prefix.$suffix } isalpha2 () # Tests whether *entire string* is alphabetic. { # From "isalpha.sh" example. [ $# -eq 1 ] || return $FAILURE case $1 in *[!a-zA-Z]*|"") return $FAILURE;; *) return $SUCCESS;; esac # Thanks, S.C. } abs () # Absolute value. { # Caution: Max return value = 255. E_ARGERR=-999999 if [ -z "$1" ] # Need arg passed. then return $E_ARGERR # Obvious error value returned. fi if [ "$1" -ge 0 ] # If non-negative, then # absval=$1 # stays as-is. else # Otherwise, let "absval = (( 0 - $1 ))" # change sign. fi return $absval } tolower () # Converts string(s) passed as argument(s) { #+ to lowercase. if [ -z "$1" ] # If no argument(s) passed, then #+ send error message echo "(null)" #+ (C-style void-pointer error message) return #+ and return from function. fi echo "$@" | tr A-Z a-z # Translate all passed arguments ($@). return # Use command substitution to set a variable to function output. # For example: # oldvar="A seT of miXed-caSe LEtTerS" # newvar=`tolower "$oldvar"` # echo "$newvar" # a set of mixed-case letters # # Exercise: Rewrite this function to change lowercase passed argument(s) # to uppercase ... toupper() [easy]. } Use special-purpose comment headers to increase clarity and legibility in scripts. ## Caution. rm -rf *.zzy ## The "-rf" options to "rm" are very dangerous, ##+ especially with wild cards. #+ Line continuation. # This is line 1 #+ of a multi-line comment, #+ and this is the final line. #* Note. #o List item. #> Another point of view. while [ "$var1" != "end" ] #> while test "$var1" != "end" Dotan Barak contributes template code for a progress bar in a script. A Progress Bar &progressbar; A particularly clever use of if-test constructs is for comment blocks. #!/bin/bash COMMENT_BLOCK= # Try setting the above variable to some value #+ for an unpleasant surprise. if [ $COMMENT_BLOCK ]; then Comment block -- ================================= This is a comment line. This is another comment line. This is yet another comment line. ================================= echo "This will not echo." Comment blocks are error-free! Whee! fi echo "No more comments, please." exit 0 Compare this with using here documents to comment out code blocks. Using the $? exit status variable, a script may test if a parameter contains only digits, so it can be treated as an integer. #!/bin/bash SUCCESS=0 E_BADINPUT=65 test "$1" -ne 0 -o "$1" -eq 0 2>/dev/null # An integer is either equal to 0 or not equal to 0. # 2>/dev/null suppresses error message. if [ $? -ne "$SUCCESS" ] then echo "Usage: `basename $0` integer-input" exit $E_BADINPUT fi let "sum = $1 + 25" # Would give error if $1 not integer. echo "Sum = $sum" # Any variable, not just a command line parameter, can be tested this way. exit 0 The 0 - 255 range for function return values is a severe limitation. Global variables and other workarounds are often problematic. An alternative method for a function to communicate a value back to the main body of the script is to have the function write to stdout (usually with echo) the return value, and assign this to a variable. This is actually a variant of command substitution. Return value trickery &multiplication; The same technique also works for alphanumeric strings. This means that a function can return a non-numeric value. capitalize_ichar () # Capitalizes initial character { #+ of argument string(s) passed. string0="$@" # Accepts multiple arguments. firstchar=${string0:0:1} # First character. string1=${string0:1} # Rest of string(s). FirstChar=`echo "$firstchar" | tr a-z A-Z` # Capitalize first character. echo "$FirstChar$string1" # Output to stdout. } newstring=`capitalize_ichar "every sentence should start with a capital letter."` echo "$newstring" # Every sentence should start with a capital letter. It is even possible for a function to return multiple values with this method. Even more return value trickery &sumproduct; There can be only one echo statement in the function for this to work. If you alter the previous example: sum_and_product () { echo "This is the sum_and_product function." # This messes things up! echo $(( $1 + $2 )) $(( $1 * $2 )) } ... retval=`sum_and_product $first $second` # Assigns output of function. # Now, this will not work correctly. Next in our bag of tricks are techniques for passing an array to a function, then returning an array back to the main body of the script. Passing an array involves loading the space-separated elements of the array into a variable with command substitution. Getting an array back as the return value from a function uses the previously mentioned strategem of echoing the array in the function, then invoking command substitution and the ( ... ) operator to assign it to an array. Passing and returning arrays &arrfunc; For a more elaborate example of passing arrays to functions, see . Using the double-parentheses construct, it is possible to use C-style syntax for setting and incrementing/decrementing variables and in for and while loops. See and . Setting the path and umask at the beginning of a script makes it more portable -- more likely to run on a foreign machine whose user may have bollixed up the $PATH and umask. #!/bin/bash PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin ; export PATH umask 022 # Files that the script creates will have 755 permission. # Thanks to Ian D. Allen, for this tip. A useful scripting technique is to repeatedly feed the output of a filter (by piping) back to the same filter, but with a different set of arguments and/or options. Especially suitable for this are tr and grep. # From "wstrings.sh" example. wlist=`strings "$1" | tr A-Z a-z | tr '[:space:]' Z | \ tr -cs '[:alpha:]' Z | tr -s '\173-\377' Z | tr Z ' '` Fun with anagrams &agram; See also , , and . Use anonymous here documents to comment out blocks of code, to save having to individually comment out each line with a #. See . Running a script on a machine that relies on a command that might not be installed is dangerous. Use whatis to avoid potential problems with this. CMD=command1 # First choice. PlanB=command2 # Fallback option. command_test=$(whatis "$CMD" | grep 'nothing appropriate') # If 'command1' not found on system , 'whatis' will return #+ "command1: nothing appropriate." # # A safer alternative is: # command_test=$(whereis "$CMD" | grep \/) # But then the sense of the following test would have to be reversed, #+ since the $command_test variable holds content only if #+ the $CMD exists on the system. # (Thanks, bojster.) if [[ -z "$command_test" ]] # Check whether command present. then $CMD option1 option2 # Run command1 with options. else # Otherwise, $PlanB #+ run command2. fi An if-grep test may not return expected results in an error case, when text is output to stderr, rather that stdout. if ls -l nonexistent_filename | grep -q 'No such file or directory' then echo "File \"nonexistent_filename\" does not exist." fi Redirecting stderr to stdout fixes this. if ls -l nonexistent_filename 2>&1 | grep -q 'No such file or directory' # ^^^^ then echo "File \"nonexistent_filename\" does not exist." fi # Thanks, Chris Martin, for pointing this out. If you absolutely must access a subshell variable outside the subshell, here's a way to do it. TMPFILE=tmpfile # Create a temp file to store the variable. ( # Inside the subshell ... inner_variable=Inner echo $inner_variable echo $inner_variable >>$TMPFILE # Append to temp file. ) # Outside the subshell ... echo; echo "-----"; echo echo $inner_variable # Null, as expected. echo "-----"; echo # Now ... read inner_variable <$TMPFILE # Read back shell variable. rm -f "$TMPFILE" # Get rid of temp file. echo "$inner_variable" # It's an ugly kludge, but it works. The run-parts command is handy for running a set of command scripts in a particular sequence, especially in combination with cron or at. For doing multiple revisions on a complex script, use the rcs Revision Control System package. Among other benefits of this is automatically updated ID header tags. The co command in rcs does a parameter replacement of certain reserved key words, for example, replacing # $Id$ in a script with something like: # $Id: hello-world.sh,v 1.1 2004/10/16 02:43:05 bozo Exp $ Widgets It would be nice to be able to invoke X-Windows widgets from a shell script. There happen to exist several packages that purport to do so, namely Xscript, Xmenu, and widtools. The first two of these no longer seem to be maintained. Fortunately, it is still possible to obtain widtools here. The widtools (widget tools) package requires the XForms library to be installed. Additionally, the Makefile needs some judicious editing before the package will build on a typical Linux system. Finally, three of the six widgets offered do not work (and, in fact, segfault). The dialog family of tools offers a method of calling dialog widgets from a shell script. The original dialog utility works in a text console, but its successors, gdialog, Xdialog, and kdialog use X-Windows-based widget sets. Widgets invoked from a shell script &dialog; The xmessage command is a simple method of popping up a message/query window. For example: xmessage Fatal error in script! -button exit The latest entry in the widget sweepstakes is zenity. This utility pops up GTK+ dialog widgets-and-windows, and it works very nicely within a script. get_info () { zenity --entry # Pops up query window . . . #+ and prints user entry to stdout. # Also try the --calendar and --scale options. } answer=$( get_info ) # Capture stdout in $answer variable. echo "User entered: "$answer"" For other methods of scripting with widgets, try Tk or wish (Tcl derivatives), PerlTk (Perl with Tk extensions), tksh (ksh with Tk extensions), XForms4Perl (Perl with XForms extensions), Gtk-Perl (Perl with Gtk extensions), or PyQt (Python with Qt extensions). Security Issues Infected Shell Scripts A brief warning about script security is indicated. A shell script may contain a worm, trojan, or even a virus. For that reason, never run as root a script (or permit it to be inserted into the system startup scripts in /etc/rc.d) unless you have obtained said script from a trusted source or you have carefully analyzed it to make certain it does nothing harmful. Various researchers at Bell Labs and other sites, including M. Douglas McIlroy, Tom Duff, and Fred Cohen have investigated the implications of shell script viruses. They conclude that it is all too easy for even a novice, a script kiddie, to write one. See Marius van Oers' article, Unix Shell Scripting Malware, and also the Denning reference in the bibliography. Here is yet another reason to learn scripting. Being able to look at and understand scripts may protect your system from being compromised by a rogue script. Hiding Shell Script Source For security purposes, it may be necessary to render a script unreadable. If only there were a utility to create a stripped binary executable from a script. Francisco Rosales' shc -- generic shell script compiler does exactly that. Unfortunately, according to an article in the October, 2005 Linux Journal, the binary can, in at least some cases, be decrypted to recover the original script source. Still, this could be a useful method of keeping scripts secure from all but the most skilled hackers. Writing Secure Shell Scripts Dan Stromberg suggests the following guidelines for writing (relatively) secure shell scripts. Don't put secret data in environment variables. Don't pass secret data in an external command's arguments (pass them in via a pipe or redirection instead). Set your $PATH carefully. Don't just trust whatever path you inherit from the caller if your script is running as root. In fact, whenever you use an environment variable inherited from the caller, think about what could happen if the caller put something misleading in the variable, e.g., if the caller set $HOME to /etc. Portability Issues This book deals specifically with Bash scripting on a GNU/Linux system. All the same, users of sh and ksh will find much of value here. As it happens, many of the various shells and scripting languages seem to be converging toward the POSIX 1003.2 standard. Invoking Bash with the option or inserting a set -o posix at the head of a script causes Bash to conform very closely to this standard. Another alternative is to use a #!/bin/sh sha-bang header in the script, rather than #!/bin/bash. Or, better yet, #!/bin/env sh. Note that /bin/sh is a link to /bin/bash in Linux and certain other flavors of UNIX, and a script invoked this way disables extended Bash functionality. Most Bash scripts will run as-is under ksh, and vice-versa, since Chet Ramey has been busily porting ksh features to the latest versions of Bash. On a commercial UNIX machine, scripts using GNU-specific features of standard commands may not work. This has become less of a problem in the last few years, as the GNU utilities have pretty much displaced their proprietary counterparts even on big-iron UNIX. Caldera's release of the source to many of the original UNIX utilities has accelerated the trend. Bash has certain features that the traditional Bourne shell lacks. Among these are: Certain extended invocation options Command substitution using $( ) notation The double brackets extended test construct The double-parentheses arithmetic-evaluation construct Certain string manipulation operations Process substitution A Regular Expression matching operator Bash-specific builtins See the Bash F.A.Q. for a complete listing. Shell Scripting Under Windows Even users running that other OS can run UNIX-like shell scripts, and therefore benefit from many of the lessons of this book. The Cygwin package from Cygnus and the MKS utilities from Mortice Kern Associates add shell scripting capabilities to Windows. There have been intimations that a future release of Windows will contain Bash-like command line scripting capabilities, but that remains to be seen. Bash, versions 2 and 3 Bash, version 2 The current version of Bash, the one you have running on your machine, is most likely version 2.xx.yy or 3.xx.yy. bash$ echo $BASH_VERSION 3.2.25(1)-release The version 2 update of the classic Bash scripting language added array variables, Chet Ramey has promised associative arrays (a nifty Perl feature) in a future Bash release. As of version 3.2, this has not yet happened. string and parameter expansion, and a better method of indirect variable references, among other features. String expansion &ex77; Indirect variable references - the new way &ex78; Simple database application, using indirect variable referencing &resistor; Using arrays and other miscellaneous trickery to deal four random hands from a deck of cards &cards; Bash, version 3 On July 27, 2004, Chet Ramey released version 3 of Bash. This update fixed quite a number of bugs and added new features. Some of the more important added features: A new, more generalized {a..z} brace expansion operator. #!/bin/bash for i in {1..10} # Simpler and more straightforward than #+ for i in $(seq 10) do echo -n "$i " done echo # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 # Or just . . . echo {a..z} # a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z echo {z..a} # z y x w v u t s r q p o n m l k j i h g f e d c b a # Works backwards, too. echo {3..-2} # 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 echo {X..d} # X Y Z [ ] ^ _ ` a b c d # Shows (some of) the ASCII characters between Z and a, #+ but don't rely on this type of behavior because . . . echo {]..a} # {]..a} # Why? The ${!array[@]} operator, which expands to all the indices of a given array. #!/bin/bash Array=(element-zero element-one element-two element-three) echo ${Array[0]} # element-zero # First element of array. echo ${!Array[@]} # 0 1 2 3 # All the indices of Array. for i in ${!Array[@]} do echo ${Array[i]} # element-zero # element-one # element-two # element-three # # All the elements in Array. done The =~ Regular Expression matching operator within a double brackets test expression. (Perl has a similar operator.) #!/bin/bash variable="This is a fine mess." echo "$variable" # Regex matching with =~ operator within [[ double brackets ]]. if [[ "$variable" =~ "T.........fin*es*" ]] # ^ ^ # NOTE: Quoting not necessary, as of version 3.2 of Bash. then echo "match found" # match found fi Or, more usefully: #!/bin/bash input=$1 if [[ "$input" =~ "[1-9][0-9][0-9]-[0-9][0-9]-[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" ]] # ^ NOTE: Quoting not necessary, as of version 3.2 of Bash. # NNN-NN-NNNN (where each N is a digit). Initial digit must not be 0. then echo "Social Security number." # Process SSN. else echo "Not a Social Security number!" # Or, ask for corrected input. fi For additional examples of using the =~ operator, see , , , and . The new option is useful for debugging pipes. If this option is set, then the exit status of a pipe is the exit status of the last command in the pipe to fail (return a non-zero value), rather than the actual final command in the pipe. See . The update to version 3 of Bash breaks a few scripts that worked under earlier versions. Test critical legacy scripts to make sure they still work! As it happens, a couple of the scripts in the Advanced Bash Scripting Guide had to be fixed up (see and , for instance). Bash, version 3.1 The version 3.1 update of Bash introduces a number of bugfixes and a few minor changes. The += operator is now permitted in in places where previously only the = assignment operator was recognized. a=1 echo $a # 1 a+=5 # Won't work under versions of Bash earlier than 3.1. echo $a # 15 a+=Hello echo $a # 15Hello Here, += functions as a string concatenation operator. Note that its behavior in this particular context is different than within a let construct. a=1 echo $a # 1 let a+=5 # Integer arithmetic, rather than string concatenation. echo $a # 6 let a+=Hello # Doesn't "add" anything to a. echo $a # 6 Bash, version 3.2 This is pretty much a bugfix update. In global parameter substitutions, the pattern no longer anchors at the start of the string. The option disables process substitution. The =~ Regular Expression match operator no longer requires quoting of the pattern within [[ ... ]]. In fact, quoting in this context is not advisable as it may cause regex evaluation to fail. See the Ubuntu Bug List and Wikinerds on Bash syntax. With Bash version 3.2.25(1), running on Fedora Core, quoting works, but do not assume this will be the case on your machine. Endnotes Author's Note doce ut discas (Teach, that you yourself may learn.) How did I come to write a Bash scripting book? It's a strange tale. It seems that a few years back I needed to learn shell scripting -- and what better way to do that than to read a good book on the subject? I was looking to buy a tutorial and reference covering all aspects of the subject. I was looking for a book that would take difficult concepts, turn them inside out, and explain them in excruciating detail, with well-commented examples. This is the notorious flog it to death technique. In fact, I was looking for this very book, or something very much like it. Unfortunately, it didn't exist, and if I wanted it, I'd have to write it. And so, here we are, folks. That reminds me of the apocryphal story about a mad professor. Crazy as a loon, the fellow was. At the sight of a book, any book -- at the library, at a bookstore, anywhere -- he would become totally obsessed with the idea that he could have written it, should have written it -- and done a better job of it to boot. He would thereupon rush home and proceed to do just that, write a book with the very same title. When he died some years later, he allegedly had several thousand books to his credit, probably putting even Asimov to shame. The books might not have been any good, who knows, but does that really matter? Here's a fellow who lived his dream, even if he was obsessed by it, driven by it . . . and somehow I can't help admiring the old coot. About the Author Who is this guy anyhow? The author claims no credentials or special qualifications, In fact, he is a school dropout and has no formal credentials or qualifications whatsoever. other than a compulsion to write. Those who can, do. Those who can't . . . get an MCSE. This book is somewhat of a departure from his other major work, HOW-2 Meet Women: The Shy Man's Guide to Relationships. He has also written the Software-Building HOWTO. Of late, he has been trying his (heavy) hand at short fiction. A Linux user since 1995 (Slackware 2.2, kernel 1.2.1), the author has emitted a few software truffles, including the cruft one-time pad encryption utility, the mcalc mortgage calculator, the judge Scrabble® adjudicator, the yawl word gaming list package, and the Quacky anagramming gaming package. He got off to a rather shaky start in the computer game -- programming FORTRAN IV on a CDC 3800 -- and is not the least bit nostalgic for those days. Living in a secluded desert community with wife and orange tabby, he cherishes human frailty, especially his own. Sometimes it seems as if he has spent his entire life flouting conventional wisdom and defying the sonorous Voice of Authority: Hey, you can't do that! Where to Go For Help The author will sometimes, if not too busy (and in a good mood), answer general scripting questions. E-mails from certain spam-infested TLDs (61, 202, 211, 218, 220, etc.) will be trapped by spam filters and deleted unread. If your ISP is located on one of these, please use a Webmail account to contact the author. However, if you have a problem getting a specific script to work, you would be well advised to post to the comp.os.unix.shell Usenet newsgroup. If you need assistance with a schoolwork assignment, read the pertinent sections of this and other reference works. Do your best to solve the problem using your own wits and resources. Kindly do not waste the author's time. You will get neither help nor sympathy. Well, if you absolutely insist, you can try modifying to suit your purposes. Tools Used to Produce This Book Hardware A used IBM Thinkpad, model 760XL laptop (P166, 104 meg RAM) running Red Hat 7.1/7.3. Sure, it's slow and has a funky keyboard, but it beats the heck out of a No. 2 pencil and a Big Chief tablet. Update: upgraded to a 770Z Thinkpad (P2-366, 192 meg RAM) running FC3. Anyone feel like donating a later-model laptop to a starving writer <g>? Update: upgraded to a A31 Thinkpad (P4-1.6, 512 meg RAM) running FC8. No longer starving, and no longer soliciting donations <g>. Software and Printware Bram Moolenaar's powerful SGML-aware vim text editor. OpenJade, a DSSSL rendering engine for converting SGML documents into other formats. Norman Walsh's DSSSL stylesheets. DocBook, The Definitive Guide, by Norman Walsh and Leonard Muellner (O'Reilly, ISBN 1-56592-580-7). This is still the standard reference for anyone attempting to write a document in Docbook SGML format. Credits Community participation made this project possible. The author gratefully acknowledges that writing this book would have been unthinkable without help and feedback from all you people out there. Philippe Martin translated the first version (0.1) of this document into DocBook/SGML. While not on the job at a small French company as a software developer, he enjoys working on GNU/Linux documentation and software, reading literature, playing music, and, for his peace of mind, making merry with friends. You may run across him somewhere in France or in the Basque Country, or you can email him at feloy@free.fr. Philippe Martin also pointed out that positional parameters past $9 are possible using {bracket} notation. (See ). Stéphane Chazelas sent a long list of corrections, additions, and example scripts. More than a contributor, he had, in effect, for a while taken on the role of co-editor for this document. Merci beaucoup! Paulo Marcel Coelho Aragao offered many corrections, both major and minor, and contributed quite a number of helpful suggestions. I would like to especially thank Patrick Callahan, Mike Novak, and Pal Domokos for catching bugs, pointing out ambiguities, and for suggesting clarifications and changes in the preliminary version (0.1) of this document. Their lively discussion of shell scripting and general documentation issues inspired me to try to make this document more readable. I'm grateful to Jim Van Zandt for pointing out errors and omissions in version 0.2 of this document. He also contributed an instructive example script. Many thanks to Jordi Sanfeliu for giving permission to use his fine tree script (), and to Rick Boivie for revising it. Likewise, thanks to Michel Charpentier for permission to use his dc factoring script (). Kudos to Noah Friedman for permission to use his string function script (). Emmanuel Rouat suggested corrections and additions on command substitution and aliases. He also contributed a very nice sample .bashrc file (). Heiner Steven kindly gave permission to use his base conversion script, . He also made a number of corrections and many helpful suggestions. Special thanks. Rick Boivie contributed the delightfully recursive pb.sh script (), revised the tree.sh script (), and suggested performance improvements for the monthlypmt.sh script (). Florian Wisser enlightened me on some of the fine points of testing strings (see ), and on other matters. Oleg Philon sent suggestions concerning cut and pidof. Michael Zick extended the empty array example to demonstrate some surprising array properties. He also contributed the isspammer scripts ( and ). Marc-Jano Knopp sent corrections and clarifications on DOS batch files. Hyun Jin Cha found several typos in the document in the process of doing a Korean translation. Thanks for pointing these out. Andreas Abraham sent in a long list of typographical errors and other corrections. Special thanks! Others contributing scripts, making helpful suggestions, and pointing out errors were Gabor Kiss, Leopold Toetsch, Peter Tillier, Marcus Berglof, Tony Richardson, Nick Drage (script ideas!), Rich Bartell, Jess Thrysoee, Adam Lazur, Bram Moolenaar, Baris Cicek, Greg Keraunen, Keith Matthews, Sandro Magi, Albert Reiner, Dim Segebart, Rory Winston, Lee Bigelow, Wayne Pollock, jipe, bojster, nyal, Hobbit, Ender, Little Monster (Alexis), Mark, Patsie, Peggy Russell, Emilio Conti, Ian. D. Allen, Hans-Joerg Diers, Arun Giridhar, Dennis Leeuw, Dan Jacobson, Aurelio Marinho Jargas, Edward Scholtz, Jean Helou, Chris Martin, Lee Maschmeyer, Bruno Haible, Wilbert Berendsen, Sebastien Godard, Bjön Eriksson, John MacDonald, Joshua Tschida, Troy Engel, Manfred Schwarb, Amit Singh, Bill Gradwohl, E. Choroba, David Lombard, Jason Parker, Steve Parker, Bruce W. Clare, William Park, Vernia Damiano, Mihai Maties, Mark Alexander, Jeremy Impson, Ken Fuchs, Jared Martin, Frank Wang, Sylvain Fourmanoit, Matthew Sage, Matthew Walker, Kenny Stauffer, Filip Moritz, Andrzej Stefanski, Daniel Albers, Stefano Palmeri, Nils Radtke, Serghey Rodin, Jeroen Domburg, Alfredo Pironti, Phil Braham, Bruno de Oliveira Schneider, Stefano Falsetto, Chris Morgan, Walter Dnes, Linc Fessenden, Michael Iatrou, Pharis Monalo, Jesse Gough, Fabian Kreutz, Mark Norman, Harald Koenig, Dan Stromberg, Peter Knowles, Francisco Lobo, Mariusz Gniazdowski, Sebastian Arming, Benno Schulenberg, Tedman Eng, Jochen DeSmet, Juan Nicolas Ruiz, Oliver Beckstein, Achmed Darwish, Dotan Barak, Richard Neill, Albert Siersema, Omair Eshkenazi, Geoff Lee, JuanJo Ciarlante, Cliff Bamford, Nathan Coulter, Antonio Macchi, Andreas Kühne, Pádraig Brady, and David Lawyer (himself an author of four HOWTOs). My gratitude to Chet Ramey and Brian Fox for writing Bash, and building into it elegant and powerful scripting capabilities rivaling those of ksh. Very special thanks to the hard-working volunteers at the Linux Documentation Project. The LDP hosts a repository of Linux knowledge and lore, and has, to a great extent, enabled the publication of this book. Thanks and appreciation to IBM, Red Hat, the Free Software Foundation, and all the good people fighting the good fight to keep Open Source software free and open. Thanks most of all to my wife, Anita, for her encouragement, inspiration, and emotional support. Disclaimer (This is a variant of the standard LDP disclaimer.) No liability for the contents of this document can be accepted. Use the concepts, examples and information at your own risk. There may be errors, omissions, and inaccuracies that could cause you to lose data or harm your system, so proceed with appropriate caution. The author takes no responsibility for any damages, incidental or otherwise. As it happens, it is highly unlikely that either you or your system will suffer ill effects. In fact, the raison d'etre of this book is to enable its readers to analyze shell scripts and determine whether they have unanticipated consequences. Those who do not understand UNIX are condemned to reinvent it, poorly. --Henry Spencer PeterDenning Computers Under Attack: Intruders, Worms, and Viruses ACM Press 1990 0-201-53067-8 This compendium contains a couple of articles on shell script viruses. * KenBurtch <ulink url="http://www.samspublishing.com/title/0672326426">Linux Shell Scripting with Bash</ulink> 1st edition Sams Publishing (Pearson) 2004 0672326426 Covers much of the same material as the ABS Guide, though in a different style. * DaleDougherty ArnoldRobbins Sed and Awk 2nd edition O'Reilly and Associates 1997 1-156592-225-5 Unfolding the full power of shell scripting requires at least a passing familiarity with sed and awk. This is the standard tutorial. It includes an excellent introduction to regular expressions. Recommended. * JeffreyFriedl Mastering Regular Expressions O'Reilly and Associates 2002 0-596-00289-0 Still the best all-around reference on Regular Expressions. * AeleenFrisch Essential System Administration 3rd edition O'Reilly and Associates 2002 0-596-00343-9 This excellent sys admin manual has a decent introduction to shell scripting for sys administrators and does a thorough job of explaining the startup and initialization scripts. * StephenKochan PatrickWood Unix Shell Programming Hayden 1990 067248448X Still considered a standard reference, though somewhat dated, and a bit wooden stylistically speaking. It was hard to resist the obvious pun. No slight intended, since the book is a pretty decent introduction to the basic concepts of shell scripting. In fact, this book was the ABS Guide author's first exposure to UNIX shell scripting, lo these many years ago. For more information, see the Kochan-Wood website. * NeilMatthew RichardStones Beginning Linux Programming Wrox Press 1996 1874416680 Surprisingly good in-depth coverage of various programming languages available for Linux, including a fairly strong chapter on shell scripting. * HerbertMayer Advanced C Programming on the IBM PC Windcrest Books 1989 0830693637 Excellent coverage of algorithms and general programming practices. Highly recommended, but unfortunately out of print. * DavidMedinets Unix Shell Programming Tools McGraw-Hill 1999 0070397333 Pretty good treatment of shell scripting, with examples, and a short intro to Tcl and Perl. * CameronNewham BillRosenblatt Learning the Bash Shell 2nd edition O'Reilly and Associates 1998 1-56592-347-2 This is a valiant effort at a decent shell primer, but sadly deficient in coverage on writing scripts and lacking sufficient examples. * AnatoleOlczak Bourne Shell Quick Reference Guide ASP, Inc. 1991 093573922X A very handy pocket reference, despite lacking coverage of Bash-specific features. * JerryPeek TimO'Reilly MikeLoukides Unix Power Tools 3nd edition O'Reilly and Associates Random House 2002 0-596-00330-7 Contains a couple of sections of very informative in-depth articles on shell programming, but falls short of being a self-teaching manual. It reproduces much of the Regular Expressions tutorial from the Dougherty and Robbins book, above. The coverage of UNIX commands makes this book worthy of a place on your bookshelf. * CliffordPickover Computers, Pattern, Chaos, and Beauty St. Martin's Press 1990 0-312-04123-3 A treasure trove of ideas and recipes for computer-based exploration of mathematical oddities. * GeorgePolya How To Solve It Princeton University Press 1973 0-691-02356-5 The classic tutorial on problem solving methods (i.e., algorithms), with special emphasis on how to teach them. * ChetRamey BrianFox <ulink url="http://www.network-theory.co.uk/bash/manual/">The GNU Bash Reference Manual</ulink> Network Theory Ltd 2003 0-9541617-7-7 This manual is the definitive reference for GNU Bash. The authors of this manual, Chet Ramey and Brian Fox, are the original developers of GNU Bash. For each copy sold, the publisher donates $1 to the Free Software Foundation. * ArnoldRobbins Bash Reference Card SSC 1998 1-58731-010-5 Excellent Bash pocket reference (don't leave home without it, especially if you're a sysadmin). A bargain at $4.95, but unfortunately no longer available for free download. * ArnoldRobbins Effective Awk Programming Free Software Foundation / O'Reilly and Associates 2000 1-882114-26-4 The absolute best awk tutorial and reference. The free electronic version of this book is part of the awk documentation, and printed copies of the latest version are available from O'Reilly and Associates. This book has served as an inspiration for the author of the ABS Guide. * BillRosenblatt Learning the Korn Shell O'Reilly and Associates 1993 1-56592-054-6 This well-written book contains some excellent pointers on shell scripting in general. * PaulSheer LINUX: Rute User's Tutorial and Exposition 1st edition 2002 0-13-033351-4 Very detailed and readable introduction to Linux system administration. The book is available in print, or on-line. * EllenSiever the staff of O'Reilly and Associates Linux in a Nutshell 2nd edition O'Reilly and Associates 1999 1-56592-585-8 The all-around best Linux command reference. It even has a Bash section. * DaveTaylor Wicked Cool Shell Scripts: 101 Scripts for Linux, Mac OS X, and Unix Systems 1st edition No Starch Press 2004 1-59327-012-7 Just what the title promises . . . * The UNIX CD Bookshelf 3rd edition O'Reilly and Associates 2003 0-596-00392-7 An array of seven UNIX books on CD ROM, including UNIX Power Tools, Sed and Awk, and Learning the Korn Shell. A complete set of all the UNIX references and tutorials you would ever need at about $130. Buy this one, even if it means going into debt and not paying the rent. Update: Seems to have somehow fallen out of print. Oh, well. You can still buy the books individually. * The O'Reilly books on Perl. (Actually, any O'Reilly books.) * * * Other Resources Fioretti, Marco, Scripting for X Productivity, Linux Journal, Issue 113, September, 2003, pp. 86-9. Ben Okopnik's well-written introductory Bash scripting articles in issues 53, 54, 55, 57, and 59 of the Linux Gazette, and his explanation of The Deep, Dark Secrets of Bash in issue 56. Chet Ramey's bash - The GNU Shell, a two-part series published in issues 3 and 4 of the Linux Journal, July-August 1994. Mike G's Bash-Programming-Intro HOWTO. Richard's Unix Scripting Universe. Chet Ramey's Bash FAQ.. This site carries the latest version of the FAQ. Ed Schaefer's Shell Corner in Unix Review. Example shell scripts at Lucc's Shell Scripts . Example shell scripts at SHELLdorado . Example shell scripts at Noah Friedman's script site. Example shell scripts at zazzybob. Steve Parker's Shell Programming Stuff. Giles Orr's Bash-Prompt HOWTO. The Pixelbeat command-line reference. Very nice sed, awk, and regular expression tutorials at The UNIX Grymoire. The GNU sed and gawk manuals. Eric Pement's sed resources page. Many interesting sed scripts at the seder's grab bag. The GNU gawk reference manual (gawk is the extended GNU version of awk available on Linux and BSD systems). Tips and tricks at Linux Reviews. Trent Fisher's groff tutorial. Mark Komarinski's Printing-Usage HOWTO. The Linux USB subsystem (helpful in writing scripts affecting USB peripherals). There is some nice material on I/O redirection in chapter 10 of the textutils documentation at the University of Alberta site. Rick Hohensee has written the osimpa i386 assembler entirely as Bash scripts. Aurelio Marinho Jargas has written a Regular expression wizard. He has also written an informative book on Regular Expressions, in Portuguese. Ben Tomkins has created the Bash Navigator directory management tool. William Park has been working on a project to incorporate certain Awk and Python features into Bash. Among these is a gdbm interface. He has released bashdiff on Freshmeat.net. He has an article in the November, 2004 issue of the Linux Gazette on adding string functions to Bash, with a followup article in the December issue, and yet another in the January, 2005 issue. Peter Knowles has written an elaborate Bash script that generates a book list on the Sony Librie e-book reader. This useful tool facilitates loading non-DRM user content on the Librie (and the newer PRS-50X-series devices). Tim Waugh's xmlto is an elaborate Bash script for converting Docbook XML documents to other formats. Of historical interest are Colin Needham's original International Movie Database (IMDB) reader polling scripts, which nicely illustrate the use of awk for string parsing. Unfortunately, the URL link is broken. --- Fritz Mehner has written a bash-support plugin for the vim text editor. He has also also come up with his own stylesheet for Bash. Compare it with the ABS Guide Unofficial Stylesheet. --- Penguin Pete has quite a number of shell scripting tips and hints on his superb site. Highly recommended. The excellent Bash Reference Manual, by Chet Ramey and Brian Fox, distributed as part of the bash-2-doc package (available as an rpm). See especially the instructive example scripts in this package. John Lion's classic, A Commentary on the Sixth Edition UNIX Operating System. The comp.os.unix.shell newsgroup. The dd thread on Linux Questions. The comp.os.unix.shell FAQ. Assorted comp.os.unix FAQs. The manpages for bash and bash2, date, expect, expr, find, grep, gzip, ln, patch, tar, tr, bc, xargs. The texinfo documentation on bash, dd, m4, gawk, and sed. Contributed Scripts These scripts, while not fitting into the text of this document, do illustrate some interesting shell programming techniques. They are useful, too. Have fun analyzing and running them. <firstterm>mailformat</firstterm>: Formatting an e-mail message &mailformat; <firstterm>rn</firstterm>: A simple-minded file renaming utility This script is a modification of . &rn; <firstterm>blank-rename</firstterm>: Renames filenames containing blanks This is an even simpler-minded version of previous script. &blankrename; <firstterm>encryptedpw</firstterm>: Uploading to an ftp site, using a locally encrypted password &encryptedpw; <firstterm>copy-cd</firstterm>: Copying a data CD ©cd; Collatz series &collatz; <firstterm>days-between</firstterm>: Days between two dates &daysbetween; Making a <firstterm>dictionary</firstterm> &makedict; Soundex conversion &soundex; <firstterm>Game of Life</firstterm> &lifeslow; Data file for <firstterm>Game of Life</firstterm> &gen0data; +++ The following two scripts are by Mark Moraes of the University of Toronto. See the file Moraes-COPYRIGHT for permissions and restrictions. This file is included in the combined HTML/source tarball of the ABS Guide. <firstterm>behead</firstterm>: Removing mail and news message headers &behead; <firstterm>ftpget</firstterm>: Downloading files via ftp &ftpget; + Antek Sawicki contributed the following script, which makes very clever use of the parameter substitution operators discussed in . <firstterm>password</firstterm>: Generating random 8-character passwords &pw; + James R. Van Zandt contributed this script which uses named pipes and, in his words, really exercises quoting and escaping. <firstterm>fifo</firstterm>: Making daily backups, using named pipes &fifo; + Stéphane Chazelas used the following script to demonstrate generating prime numbers without arrays. Generating prime numbers using the modulo operator ℙ + Rick Boivie's revision of Jordi Sanfeliu's tree script. <firstterm>tree</firstterm>: Displaying a directory tree &tree; Patsie's version of a directory tree script. <firstterm>tree2</firstterm>: Alternate directory tree script &tree2; Noah Friedman permitted use of his string function script. It essentially reproduces some of the C-library string manipulation functions. <firstterm>string functions</firstterm>: C-style string functions &string; Michael Zick's complex array example uses the md5sum check sum command to encode directory information. Directory information &directoryinfo; Stéphane Chazelas demonstrates object-oriented programming in a Bash script. Object-oriented database &objoriented; Mariusz Gniazdowski contributed a hash library for use in scripts. Library of hash functions &hashlib; Here is an example script using the foregoing hash library. Colorizing text using hash functions &hashexample; An example illustrating the mechanics of hashing, but from a different point of view. More on hash functions &hashex2; Now for a script that installs and mounts those cute USB keychain solid-state hard drives. Mounting USB keychain storage devices &usbinst; Converting a text file to HTML format. Converting to HTML &tohtml; Here is something to warm the hearts of webmasters and mistresses: a script that saves weblogs. Preserving weblogs &archiveweblogs; How to keep the shell from expanding and reinterpreting text strings. Protecting literal strings &protectliteral; But, what if you want the shell to expand and reinterpret strings? Unprotecting literal strings &unprotectliteral; This interesting script helps hunt down spammers. Spammer Identification &isspammer2; Another anti-spam script. Spammer Hunt &whx; Little Monster's front end to wget. Making <firstterm>wget</firstterm> easier to use &wgetter2; A <firstterm>podcasting</firstterm> script &bashpodder; Nightly backup to a firewire HD &nightlybackup; An expanded <firstterm>cd</firstterm> command &cdll; A soundcard setup script &soundcardon; Locating split paragraphs in a text file &findsplit; Insertion sort &insertionsort; Standard Deviation &stddev; A <firstterm>pad</firstterm> file generator for shareware authors &padsw; A <firstterm>man page</firstterm> editor &maned; Petals Around the Rose &petals; Quacky: a Perquackey-type word game &qky; Nim &nim; A command-line stopwatch &stopwatch; An all-purpose shell scripting homework assignment solution &homework; An alternate version of the <link linkend="getoptsimple">getopt-simple.sh</link> script &usegetopt; To end this section, a review of the basics . . . and more. Basics Reviewed &basicsreviewed; Reference Cards The following reference cards provide a useful summary of certain scripting concepts. The foregoing text treats these matters in more depth, as well as giving usage examples. Special Shell Variables Variable Meaning Filename of script Positional parameter #1 Positional parameters #2 - #9 Positional parameter #10 Number of positional parameters All the positional parameters (as a single word) * All the positional parameters (as separate strings) Number of command line parameters passed to script Number of command line parameters passed to script Return value Process ID (PID) of script Flags passed to script (using set) Last argument of previous command Process ID (PID) of last job run in background

* Must be quoted, otherwise it defaults to $@. TEST Operators: Binary Comparison Operator Meaning ----- Operator Meaning Arithmetic Comparison String Comparison Equal to Equal to Equal to Not equal to Not equal to Less than Less than (ASCII) * Less than or equal to Greater than Greater than (ASCII) * Greater than or equal to String is empty String is not empty Arithmetic Comparison within double parentheses (( ... )) Greater than Greater than or equal to Less than Less than or equal to

* If within a double-bracket [[ ... ]] test construct, then no escape \ is needed. TEST Operators: Files Operator Tests Whether ----- Operator Tests Whether File exists File is not zero size File is a regular file File is a directory File has read permission File is a symbolic link File has write permission File is a symbolic link File has execute permission File is a block device File is a character device sgid flag set File is a pipe suid flag set File is a socket sticky bit set File is associated with a terminal File modified since it was last read File F1 is newer than F2 * You own the file File F1 is older than F2 * Group id of file same as yours Files F1 and F2 are hard links to the same file * NOT (inverts sense of above tests)

* Binary operator (requires two operands). Parameter Substitution and Expansion Expression Meaning Value of var, same as $var If var not set, evaluate expression as $DEFAULT * If var not set or is empty, evaluate expression as $DEFAULT * If var not set, evaluate expression as $DEFAULT * If var not set, evaluate expression as $DEFAULT * If var set, evaluate expression as $OTHER, otherwise as null string If var set, evaluate expression as $OTHER, otherwise as null string If var not set, print $ERR_MSG * If var not set, print $ERR_MSG * Matches all previously declared variables beginning with varprefix Matches all previously declared variables beginning with varprefix

* Of course if var is set, evaluate the expression as $var. String Operations Expression Meaning Length of $string Extract substring from $string at $position Extract $length characters substring from $string at $position Strip shortest match of $substring from front of $string Strip longest match of $substring from front of $string Strip shortest match of $substring from back of $string Strip longest match of $substring from back of $string Replace first match of $substring with $replacement Replace all matches of $substring with $replacement If $substring matches front end of $string, substitute $replacement for $substring If $substring matches back end of $string, substitute $replacement for $substring Length of matching $substring* at beginning of $string Length of matching $substring* at beginning of $string Numerical position in $string of first character in $substring that matches Extract $length characters from $string starting at $position Extract $substring* at beginning of $string Extract $substring* at beginning of $string Extract $substring* at end of $string Extract $substring* at end of $string

* Where $substring is a Regular Expression. Miscellaneous Constructs Expression Interpretation Brackets Test construct Extended test construct Array initialization Range of characters within a Regular Expression Curly Brackets Parameter substitution Indirect variable reference Block of code Brace expansion Extended brace expansion Text replacement, after find and xargs Parentheses Command group executed within a subshell Array initialization Command substitution, new style Process substitution Process substitution Double Parentheses Integer arithmetic Integer arithmetic, with variable assignment C-style variable increment C-style variable decrement C-style trinary operation Quoting "Weak" quoting 'Strong' quoting Back Quotes Command substitution, classic style

A Sed and Awk Micro-Primer This is a very brief introduction to the sed and awk text processing utilities. We will deal with only a few basic commands here, but that will suffice for understanding simple sed and awk constructs within shell scripts. sed: a non-interactive text file editor awk: a field-oriented pattern processing language with a C-style syntax For all their differences, the two utilities share a similar invocation syntax, both use regular expressions , both read input by default from stdin, and both output to stdout. These are well-behaved UNIX tools, and they work together well. The output from one can be piped to the other, and their combined capabilities give shell scripts some of the power of Perl. One important difference between the utilities is that while shell scripts can easily pass arguments to sed, it is more complicated for awk (see and ). Sed Sed is a non-interactive Sed executes without user intervention. stream editor. It receives text input, whether from stdin or from a file, performs certain operations on specified lines of the input, one line at a time, then outputs the result to stdout or to a file. Within a shell script, sed is usually one of several tool components in a pipe. Sed determines which lines of its input that it will operate on from the address range passed to it. If no address range is specified, the default is all lines. Specify this address range either by line number or by a pattern to match. For example, 3d signals sed to delete line 3 of the input, and /windows/d tells sed that you want every line of the input containing a match to windows deleted. Of all the operations in the sed toolkit, we will focus primarily on the three most commonly used ones. These are printing (to stdout), deletion, and substitution. Basic sed operators Operator Name Effect print Print [specified address range] delete Delete [specified address range] substitute Substitute pattern2 for first instance of pattern1 in a line substitute Substitute pattern2 for first instance of pattern1 in a line, over address-range transform replace any character in pattern1 with the corresponding character in pattern2, over address-range (equivalent of tr) global Operate on every pattern match within each matched line of input

Unless the (global) operator is appended to a substitute command, the substitution operates only on the first instance of a pattern match within each line. From the command line and in a shell script, a sed operation may require quoting and certain options. sed -e '/^$/d' $filename # The -e option causes the next string to be interpreted as an editing instruction. # (If passing only a single instruction to sed, the "-e" is optional.) # The "strong" quotes ('') protect the RE characters in the instruction #+ from reinterpretation as special characters by the body of the script. # (This reserves RE expansion of the instruction for sed.) # # Operates on the text contained in file $filename. In certain cases, a sed editing command will not work with single quotes. filename=file1.txt pattern=BEGIN sed "/^$pattern/d" "$filename" # Works as specified. # sed '/^$pattern/d' "$filename" has unexpected results. # In this instance, with strong quoting (' ... '), #+ "$pattern" will not expand to "BEGIN". Sed uses the option to specify that the following string is an instruction or set of instructions. If there is only a single instruction contained in the string, then this may be omitted. sed -n '/xzy/p' $filename # The -n option tells sed to print only those lines matching the pattern. # Otherwise all input lines would print. # The -e option not necessary here since there is only a single editing instruction. Examples of sed operators Notation Effect Delete 8th line of input. Delete all blank lines. Delete from beginning of input up to, and including first blank line. Print only lines containing Jones (with -n option). Substitute Linux for first instance of Windows found in each input line. Substitute stability for every instance of BSOD found in each input line. Delete all spaces at the end of every line. Compress all consecutive sequences of zeroes into a single zero. Delete all lines containing GUI. Delete all instances of GUI, leaving the remainder of each line intact.

Substituting a zero-length string for another is equivalent to deleting that string within a line of input. This leaves the remainder of the line intact. Applying s/GUI// to the line The most important parts of any application are its GUI and sound effects results in The most important parts of any application are its and sound effects A backslash forces the sed replacement command to continue on to the next line. This has the effect of using the newline at the end of the first line as the replacement string. s/^ */\ /g This substitution replaces line-beginning spaces with a newline. The net result is to replace paragraph indents with a blank line between paragraphs. An address range followed by one or more operations may require open and closed curly brackets, with appropriate newlines. /[0-9A-Za-z]/,/^$/{ /^$/d } This deletes only the first of each set of consecutive blank lines. That might be useful for single-spacing a text file, but retaining the blank line(s) between paragraphs. The usual delimiter that sed uses is /. However, sed allows other delimiters, such as %. This is useful when / is part of a replacement string, as in a file pathname. See and . A quick way to double-space a text file is sed G filename. For illustrative examples of sed within shell scripts, see: For a more extensive treatment of sed, check the appropriate references in the . Awk Awk Its name derives from the initials of its authors, Aho, Weinberg, and Kernighan. is a full-featured text processing language with a syntax reminiscent of C. While it possesses an extensive set of operators and capabilities, we will cover only a few of these here - the ones most useful in shell scripts. Awk breaks each line of input passed to it into fields. By default, a field is a string of consecutive characters delimited by whitespace, though there are options for changing this. Awk parses and operates on each separate field. This makes it ideal for handling structured text files -- especially tables -- data organized into consistent chunks, such as rows and columns. Strong quoting and curly brackets enclose blocks of awk code within a shell script. # $1 is field #1, $2 is field #2, etc. echo one two | awk '{print $1}' # one echo one two | awk '{print $2}' # two # But what is field #0 ($0)? echo one two | awk '{print $0}' # one two # All the fields! awk '{print $3}' $filename # Prints field #3 of file $filename to stdout. awk '{print $1 $5 $6}' $filename # Prints fields #1, #5, and #6 of file $filename. awk '{print $0}' $filename # Prints the entire file! # Same effect as: cat $filename . . . or . . . sed '' $filename We have just seen the awk print command in action. The only other feature of awk we need to deal with here is variables. Awk handles variables similarly to shell scripts, though a bit more flexibly. { total += ${column_number} } This adds the value of column_number to the running total of total>. Finally, to print total, there is an END command block, executed after the script has processed all its input. END { print total } Corresponding to the END, there is a BEGIN, for a code block to be performed before awk starts processing its input. The following example illustrates how awk can add text-parsing tools to a shell script. Counting Letter Occurrences &lettercount2; For simpler examples of awk within shell scripts, see: That's all the awk we'll cover here, folks, but there's lots more to learn. See the appropriate references in the . Exit Codes With Special Meanings <firstterm>Reserved</firstterm> Exit Codes Exit Code Number Meaning Example Comments Catchall for general errors let "var1 = 1/0" Miscellaneous errors, such as divide by zero and other impermissible operations Misuse of shell builtins (according to Bash documentation) empty_function() {} Seldom seen, usually defaults to exit code 1 Command invoked cannot execute Permission problem or command is not an executable command not found illegal_command Possible problem with $PATH or a typo Invalid argument to exit exit 3.14159 exit takes only integer args in the range 0 - 255 (see first footnote) Fatal error signal n kill -9 $PPID of script $? returns 137 (128 + 9) Script terminated by Control-C Control-C is fatal error signal 2, (130 = 128 + 2, see above) Exit status out of range exit -1 exit takes only integer args in the range 0 - 255

According to the above table, exit codes 1 - 2, 126 - 165, and 255 Out of range exit values can result in unexpected exit codes. An exit value greater than 255 returns an exit code modulo 256. For example, exit 3809 gives an exit code of 225 (3809 % 256 = 225). have special meanings, and should therefore be avoided for user-specified exit parameters. Ending a script with exit 127 would certainly cause confusion when troubleshooting (is the error code a command not found or a user-defined one?). However, many scripts use an exit 1 as a general bailout-upon-error. Since exit code 1 signifies so many possible errors, it is not particularly useful in debugging. There has been an attempt to systematize exit status numbers (see /usr/include/sysexits.h), but this is intended for C and C++ programmers. A similar standard for scripting might be appropriate. The author of this document proposes restricting user-defined exit codes to the range 64 - 113 (in addition to 0, for success), to conform with the C/C++ standard. This would allot 50 valid codes, and make troubleshooting scripts more straightforward. An update of /usr/include/sysexits.h allocates previously unused exit codes from 64 - 78. It may be anticipated that the range of unallotted exit codes will be further restricted in the future. The author of this document will not do fixups on the scripting examples to conform to the changing standard. This should not cause any problems, since there is no overlap or conflict in usage of exit codes between compiled C/C++ binaries and shell scripts. All user-defined exit codes in the accompanying examples to this document conform to this standard, except where overriding circumstances exist, as in . Issuing a $? from the command line after a shell script exits gives results consistent with the table above only from the Bash or sh prompt. Running the C-shell or tcsh may give different values in some cases. A Detailed Introduction to I/O and I/O Redirection written by Stéphane Chazelas, and revised by the document author A command expects the first three file descriptors to be available. The first, fd 0 (standard input, stdin), is for reading. The other two (fd 1, stdout and fd 2, stderr) are for writing. There is a stdin, stdout, and a stderr associated with each command. ls 2>&1 means temporarily connecting the stderr of the ls command to the same resource as the shell's stdout. By convention, a command reads its input from fd 0 (stdin), prints normal output to fd 1 (stdout), and error ouput to fd 2 (stderr). If one of those three fd's is not open, you may encounter problems: bash$ cat /etc/passwd >&- cat: standard output: Bad file descriptor For example, when xterm runs, it first initializes itself. Before running the user's shell, xterm opens the terminal device (/dev/pts/<n> or something similar) three times. At this point, Bash inherits these three file descriptors, and each command (child process) run by Bash inherits them in turn, except when you redirect the command. Redirection means reassigning one of the file descriptors to another file (or a pipe, or anything permissible). File descriptors may be reassigned locally (for a command, a command group, a subshell, a while or if or case or for loop...), or globally, for the remainder of the shell (using exec). ls > /dev/null means running ls with its fd 1 connected to /dev/null. bash$ lsof -a -p $$ -d0,1,2 COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME bash 363 bozo 0u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 bash 363 bozo 1u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 bash 363 bozo 2u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 bash$ exec 2> /dev/null bash$ lsof -a -p $$ -d0,1,2 COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME bash 371 bozo 0u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 bash 371 bozo 1u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 bash 371 bozo 2w CHR 1,3 120 /dev/null bash$ bash -c 'lsof -a -p $$ -d0,1,2' | cat COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME lsof 379 root 0u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 lsof 379 root 1w FIFO 0,0 7118 pipe lsof 379 root 2u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 bash$ echo "$(bash -c 'lsof -a -p $$ -d0,1,2' 2>&1)" COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME lsof 426 root 0u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1 lsof 426 root 1w FIFO 0,0 7520 pipe lsof 426 root 2w FIFO 0,0 7520 pipe This works for different types of redirection. Exercise: Analyze the following script. #! /usr/bin/env bash mkfifo /tmp/fifo1 /tmp/fifo2 while read a; do echo "FIFO1: $a"; done < /tmp/fifo1 & exec 7> /tmp/fifo1 exec 8> >(while read a; do echo "FD8: $a, to fd7"; done >&7) exec 3>&1 ( ( ( while read a; do echo "FIFO2: $a"; done < /tmp/fifo2 | tee /dev/stderr \ | tee /dev/fd/4 | tee /dev/fd/5 | tee /dev/fd/6 >&7 & exec 3> /tmp/fifo2 echo 1st, to stdout sleep 1 echo 2nd, to stderr >&2 sleep 1 echo 3rd, to fd 3 >&3 sleep 1 echo 4th, to fd 4 >&4 sleep 1 echo 5th, to fd 5 >&5 sleep 1 echo 6th, through a pipe | sed 's/.*/PIPE: &, to fd 5/' >&5 sleep 1 echo 7th, to fd 6 >&6 sleep 1 echo 8th, to fd 7 >&7 sleep 1 echo 9th, to fd 8 >&8 ) 4>&1 >&3 3>&- | while read a; do echo "FD4: $a"; done 1>&3 5>&- 6>&- ) 5>&1 >&3 | while read a; do echo "FD5: $a"; done 1>&3 6>&- ) 6>&1 >&3 | while read a; do echo "FD6: $a"; done 3>&- rm -f /tmp/fifo1 /tmp/fifo2 # For each command and subshell, figure out which fd points to what. # Good luck! exit 0 Command-Line Options Many executables, whether binaries or script files, accept options to modify their run-time behavior. For example: from the command line, typing command -o would invoke command, with option . Standard Command-Line Options Over time, there has evolved a loose standard for the meanings of command line option flags. The GNU utilities conform more closely to this standard than older UNIX utilities. Traditionally, UNIX command-line options consist of a dash, followed by one or more lowercase letters. The GNU utilities added a double-dash, followed by a complete word or compound word. The two most widely-accepted options are: Help: Give usage message and exit. Version: Show program version and exit. Other common options are: All: show all information or operate on all arguments. List: list files or arguments without taking other action. Output filename Quiet: suppress stdout. Recursive: Operate recursively (down directory tree). Verbose: output additional information to stdout or stderr. Compress: apply compression (usually gzip). However: In tar and gawk: File: filename follows. In cp, mv, rm: Force: force overwrite of target file(s). Many UNIX and Linux utilities deviate from this standard, so it is dangerous to assume that a given option will behave in a standard way. Always check the man page for the command in question when in doubt. A complete table of recommended options for the GNU utilities is available at the GNU standards page. Bash Command-Line Options Bash itself has a number of command-line options. Here are some of the more useful ones. Read commands from the following string and assign any arguments to the positional parameters. bash$ bash -c 'set a b c d; IFS="+-;"; echo "$*"' a+b+c+d Runs the shell, or a script, in restricted mode. Forces Bash to conform to POSIX mode. Display Bash version information and exit. End of options. Anything further on the command line is an argument, not an option. Important Files <anchor id="filesref1">startup files These files contain the aliases and environmental variables made available to Bash running as a user shell and to all Bash scripts invoked after system initialization. /etc/profile Systemwide defaults, mostly setting the environment (all Bourne-type shells, not just Bash This does not apply to csh, tcsh, and other shells not related to or descended from the classic Bourne shell (sh).) /etc/bashrc systemwide functions and aliases for Bash $HOME/.bash_profile user-specific Bash environmental default settings, found in each user's home directory (the local counterpart to /etc/profile) $HOME/.bashrc user-specific Bash init file, found in each user's home directory (the local counterpart to /etc/bashrc). Only interactive shells and user scripts read this file. See for a sample .bashrc file. <anchor id="logoutfileref1">logout file $HOME/.bash_logout user-specific instruction file, found in each user's home directory. Upon exit from a login (Bash) shell, the commands in this file execute. <anchor id="sysconfref1">system configuration files /etc/sysconfig/hwconf Listing and description of attached hardware devices. This information is in text form and can be extracted and parsed. bash$ grep -A 5 AUDIO /etc/sysconfig/hwconf class: AUDIO bus: PCI detached: 0 driver: snd-intel8x0 desc: "Intel Corporation 82801CA/CAM AC'97 Audio Controller" vendorId: 8086 This file is present on Red Hat and Fedora Core installations, but may be missing from other distros. Important System Directories Sysadmins and anyone else writing administrative scripts should be intimately familiar with the following system directories. /bin Binaries (executables). Basic system programs and utilities (such as bash). /usr/bin Some early UNIX systems had a fast, small-capacity fixed disk (containing /, the root partition), and a second drive which was larger, but slower (containing /usr and other partitions). The most frequently used programs and utilities therefore resided on the small-but-fast drive, in /bin, and the others on the slower drive, in /usr/bin. This likewise accounts for the split between /sbin and /usr/sbin, /lib and /usr/lib, etc. More system binaries. /usr/local/bin Miscellaneous binaries local to the particular machine. /sbin System binaries. Basic system administrative programs and utilities (such as fsck). /usr/sbin More system administrative programs and utilities. /etc Et cetera. Systemwide configuration scripts. Of particular interest are the /etc/fstab (filesystem table), /etc/mtab (mounted filesystem table), and the /etc/inittab files. /etc/rc.d Boot scripts, on Red Hat and derivative distributions of Linux. /usr/share/doc Documentation for installed packages. /usr/man The systemwide manpages. /dev Device directory. Entries (but not mount points) for physical and virtual devices. See . /proc Process directory. Contains information and statistics about running processes and kernel parameters. See . /sys Systemwide device directory. Contains information and statistics about device and device names. This is newly added to Linux with the 2.6.X kernels. /mnt Mount. Directory for mounting hard drive partitions, such as /mnt/dos, and physical devices. In newer Linux distros, the /media directory has taken over as the preferred mount point for I/O devices. /media In newer Linux distros, the preferred mount point for I/O devices, such as CD/DVD drives or USB flash drives. /var Variable (changeable) system files. This is a catchall scratchpad directory for data generated while a Linux/UNIX machine is running. /var/log Systemwide log files. /var/spool/mail User mail spool. /lib Systemwide library files. /usr/lib More systemwide library files. /tmp System temporary files. /boot System boot directory. The kernel, module links, system map, and boot manager reside here. Altering files in this directory may result in an unbootable system. Localization Localization is an undocumented Bash feature. A localized shell script echoes its text output in the language defined as the system's locale. A Linux user in Berlin, Germany, would get script output in German, whereas his cousin in Berlin, Maryland, would get output from the same script in English. To create a localized script, use the following template to write all messages to the user (error messages, prompts, etc.). #!/bin/bash # localized.sh # Script by Stéphane Chazelas, #+ modified by Bruno Haible, bugfixed by Alfredo Pironti. . gettext.sh E_CDERROR=65 error() { printf "$@" >&2 exit $E_CDERROR } cd $var || error "`eval_gettext \"Can\'t cd to \\\$var.\"`" # The triple backslashes (escapes) in front of $var needed #+ "because eval_gettext expects a string #+ where the variable values have not yet been substituted." # -- per Bruno Haible read -p "`gettext \"Enter the value: \"`" var # ... # ------------------------------------------------------------------ # Alfredo Pironti comments: # This script has been modified to not use the $"..." syntax in #+ favor of the "`gettext \"...\"`" syntax. # This is ok, but with the new localized.sh program, the commands #+ "bash -D filename" and "bash --dump-po-string filename" #+ will produce no output #+ (because those command are only searching for the $"..." strings)! # The ONLY way to extract strings from the new file is to use the # 'xgettext' program. However, the xgettext program is buggy. # Note that 'xgettext' has another bug. # # The shell fragment: # gettext -s "I like Bash" # will be correctly extracted, but . . . # xgettext -s "I like Bash" # . . . fails! # 'xgettext' will extract "-s" because #+ the command only extracts the #+ very first argument after the 'gettext' word. # Escape characters: # # To localize a sentence like # echo -e "Hello\tworld!" #+ you must use # echo -e "`gettext \"Hello\\tworld\"`" # The "double escape character" before the `t' is needed because #+ 'gettext' will search for a string like: 'Hello\tworld' # This is because gettext will read one literal `\') #+ and will output a string like "Bonjour\tmonde", #+ so the 'echo' command will display the message correctly. # # You may not use # echo "`gettext -e \"Hello\tworld\"`" #+ due to the xgettext bug explained above. # Let's localize the following shell fragment: # echo "-h display help and exit" # # First, one could do this: # echo "`gettext \"-h display help and exit\"`" # This way 'xgettext' will work ok, #+ but the 'gettext' program will read "-h" as an option! # # One solution could be # echo "`gettext -- \"-h display help and exit\"`" # This way 'gettext' will work, #+ but 'xgettext' will extract "--", as referred to above. # # The workaround you may use to get this string localized is # echo -e "`gettext \"\\0-h display help and exit\"`" # We have added a \0 (NULL) at the beginning of the sentence. # This way 'gettext' works correctly, as does 'xgettext.' # Moreover, the NULL character won't change the behavior #+ of the 'echo' command. # ------------------------------------------------------------------ bash$ bash -D localized.sh "Can't cd to %s." "Enter the value: " This lists all the localized text. (The option lists double-quoted strings prefixed by a $, without executing the script.) bash$ bash --dump-po-strings localized.sh #: a:6 msgid "Can't cd to %s." msgstr "" #: a:7 msgid "Enter the value: " msgstr "" The option to Bash resembles the option, but uses gettext po format. Bruno Haible points out: Starting with gettext-0.12.2, xgettext -o - localized.sh is recommended instead of bash --dump-po-strings localized.sh, because xgettext . . . 1. understands the gettext and eval_gettext commands (whereas bash --dump-po-strings understands only its deprecated $"..." syntax) 2. can extract comments placed by the programmer, intended to be read by the translator. This shell code is then not specific to Bash any more; it works the same way with Bash 1.x and other /bin/sh implementations. Now, build a language.po file for each language that the script will be translated into, specifying the msgstr. Alfredo Pironti gives the following example: fr.po: #: a:6 msgid "Can't cd to $var." msgstr "Impossible de se positionner dans le repertoire $var." #: a:7 msgid "Enter the value: " msgstr "Entrez la valeur : " # The string are dumped with the variable names, not with the %s syntax, #+ similar to C programs. #+ This is a very cool feature if the programmer uses #+ variable names that make sense! Then, run msgfmt. msgfmt -o localized.sh.mo fr.po Place the resulting localized.sh.mo file in the /usr/local/share/locale/fr/LC_MESSAGES directory, and at the beginning of the script, insert the lines: TEXTDOMAINDIR=/usr/local/share/locale TEXTDOMAIN=localized.sh If a user on a French system runs the script, she will get French messages. With older versions of Bash or other shells, localization requires gettext, using the option. In this case, the script becomes: #!/bin/bash # localized.sh E_CDERROR=65 error() { local format=$1 shift printf "$(gettext -s "$format")" "$@" >&2 exit $E_CDERROR } cd $var || error "Can't cd to %s." "$var" read -p "$(gettext -s "Enter the value: ")" var # ... The TEXTDOMAIN and TEXTDOMAINDIR variables need to be set and exported to the environment. This should be done within the script itself. --- This appendix written by Stéphane Chazelas, with modifications suggested by Alfredo Pironti, and by Bruno Haible, maintainer of GNU gettext. History Commands The Bash shell provides command-line tools for editing and manipulating a user's command history. This is primarily a convenience, a means of saving keystrokes. Bash history commands: history fc bash$ history 1 mount /mnt/cdrom 2 cd /mnt/cdrom 3 ls ... Internal variables associated with Bash history commands: $HISTCMD $HISTCONTROL $HISTIGNORE $HISTFILE $HISTFILESIZE $HISTSIZE $HISTTIMEFORMAT (Bash, ver. 3.0 or later) !! !$ !# !N !-N !STRING !?STRING? ^STRING^string^ Unfortunately, the Bash history tools find no use in scripting. #!/bin/bash # history.sh # A (vain) attempt to use the 'history' command in a script. history # No output. var=$(history); echo "$var" # $var is empty. # History commands disabled within a script. bash$ ./history.sh (no output) The Advancing in the Bash Shell site gives a good introduction to the use of history commands in Bash. A Sample <filename>.bashrc</filename> File The ~/.bashrc file determines the behavior of interactive shells. A good look at this file can lead to a better understanding of Bash. Emmanuel Rouat contributed the following very elaborate .bashrc file, written for a Linux system. He welcomes reader feedback on it. Study the file carefully, and feel free to reuse code snippets and functions from it in your own .bashrc file or even in your scripts. Sample <filename>.bashrc</filename> file &bashrc; Converting DOS Batch Files to Shell Scripts Quite a number of programmers learned scripting on a PC running DOS. Even the crippled DOS batch file language allowed writing some fairly powerful scripts and applications, though they often required extensive kludges and workarounds. Occasionally, the need still arises to convert an old DOS batch file to a UNIX shell script. This is generally not difficult, as DOS batch file operators are only a limited subset of the equivalent shell scripting ones. Batch file keywords / variables / operators, and their shell equivalents Batch File Operator Shell Script Equivalent Meaning $ command-line parameter prefix - command option flag / directory path separator = (equal-to) string comparison test != (not equal-to) string comparison test | pipe set do not echo current command * filename wild card > file redirection (overwrite) >> file redirection (append) < redirect stdin $VAR environmental variable # comment ! negate following test /dev/null black hole for burying command output echo echo (many more option in Bash) echo echo blank line set do not echo command(s) following for var in [list]; do for loop none (unnecessary) label none (use a function) jump to another location in the script sleep pause or wait an interval case or select menu choice if if-test if [ -e filename ] test if file exists if [ -z "$N" ] if replaceable parameter N not present source or . (dot operator) include another script source or . (dot operator) include another script (same as CALL) export set an environmental variable shift left shift command-line argument list -lt or -gt sign (of integer) $? exit status stdin console (stdin) /dev/lp0 (generic) printer device /dev/lp0 first printer device /dev/ttyS0 first serial port

Batch files usually contain DOS commands. These must be translated into their UNIX equivalents in order to convert a batch file into a shell script. DOS commands and their UNIX equivalents DOS Command UNIX Equivalent Effect ln link file or directory chmod change file permissions cd change directory cd change directory clear clear screen diff, comm, cmp file compare cp file copy Ctl-C break (signal) Ctl-D EOF (end-of-file) rm delete file(s) rm -rf delete directory recursively ls -l directory listing rm delete file(s) exit exit current process comm, cmp file compare grep find strings in files mkdir make directory mkdir make directory more text file paging filter mv move $PATH path to executables mv rename (move) mv rename (move) rmdir remove directory rmdir remove directory sort sort file date display system time cat output file to stdout cp (extended) file copy

Virtually all UNIX and shell operators and commands have many more options and enhancements than their DOS and batch file counterparts. Many DOS batch files rely on auxiliary utilities, such as ask.com, a crippled counterpart to read. DOS supports only a very limited and incompatible subset of filename wild-card expansion, recognizing just the * and ? characters. Converting a DOS batch file into a shell script is generally straightforward, and the result ofttimes reads better than the original. VIEWDATA.BAT: DOS Batch File &VIEWDAT; The script conversion is somewhat of an improvement. Various readers have suggested modifications of the above batch file to prettify it and make it more compact and efficient. In the opinion of the ABS Guide author, this is wasted effort. A Bash script can access a DOS filesystem, or even an NTFS partition (with the help of ntfs-3g) to do batch or scripted operations. <firstterm>viewdata.sh</firstterm>: Shell Script Conversion of VIEWDATA.BAT &viewdata; Ted Davis' Shell Scripts on the PC site has a set of comprehensive tutorials on the old-fashioned art of batch file programming. Certain of his ingenious techniques could conceivably have relevance for shell scripts. Exercises The exercises that follow test and extend your knowledge of scripting. Think of them as a challenge, as an entertaining way to take you further along the stony path toward UNIX wizardry. On a dingy side street in a run-down section of Hoboken, New Jersey, there sits a nondescript squat two-story brick building with a inscription incised on a marble plate in its wall: Bash Scripting Hall of Fame. Inside, among various dusty uninteresting exhibits is a corroding, cobweb-festooned brass plaque inscribed with a short, very short list of those few persons who have successfully mastered the material in the Advanced Bash Scripting Guide, as evidenced by their performance on the following Exercise sections. . . . Analyzing Scripts Examine the following script. Run it, then explain what it does. Annotate the script and rewrite it in a more compact and elegant manner. #!/bin/bash MAX=10000 for((nr=1; nr<$MAX; nr++)) do let "t1 = nr % 5" if [ "$t1" -ne 3 ] then continue fi let "t2 = nr % 7" if [ "$t2" -ne 4 ] then continue fi let "t3 = nr % 9" if [ "$t3" -ne 5 ] then continue fi break # What happens when you comment out this line? Why? done echo "Number = $nr" exit 0 --- Explain what the following script does. It is really just a parameterized command-line pipe. #!/bin/bash DIRNAME=/usr/bin FILETYPE="shell script" LOGFILE=logfile file "$DIRNAME"/* | fgrep "$FILETYPE" | tee $LOGFILE | wc -l exit 0 --- Examine and explain the following script. For hints, you might refer to the listings for find and stat. #!/bin/bash # Author: Nathan Coulter # This code is released to the public domain. # The author gave permission to use this code snippet in the ABS Guide. find -maxdepth 1 -type f -printf '%f\000' | { while read -d $'\000'; do mv "$REPLY" "$(date -d "$(stat -c '%y' "$REPLY") " '+%Y%m%d%H%M%S' )-$REPLY" done } # Warning: Test-drive this script in a "scratch" directory. # It will somehow affect all the files there. --- A reader sent in the following code snippet. while read LINE do echo $LINE done < `tail -f /var/log/messages` He wished to write a script tracking changes to the system log file, /var/log/messages. Unfortunately, the above code block hangs and does nothing useful. Why? Fix this so it does work. (Hint: rather than redirecting the stdin of the loop, try a pipe.) --- Analyze the following one-liner (here split into two lines for clarity) contributed by Rory Winston: export SUM=0; for f in $(find src -name "*.java"); do export SUM=$(($SUM + $(wc -l $f | awk '{ print $1 }'))); done; echo $SUM Hint: First, break the script up into bite-sized sections. Then, carefully examine its use of double-parentheses arithmetic, the export command, the find command, the wc command, and awk. --- Analyze , and reorganize it in a simplified and more logical style. See how many of the variables can be eliminated, and try to optimize the script to speed up its execution time. Alter the script so that it accepts any ordinary ASCII text file as input for its initial generation. The script will read the first $ROW*$COL characters, and set the occurrences of vowels as living cells. Hint: be sure to translate the spaces in the input file to underscore characters. Writing Scripts Write a script to carry out each of the following tasks. <anchor id="exeasy1">EASY Self-reproducing Script Write a script that backs itself up, that is, copies itself to a file named backup.sh. Hint: Use the cat command and the appropriate positional parameter. Home Directory Listing Perform a recursive directory listing on the user's home directory and save the information to a file. Compress the file, have the script prompt the user to insert a USB flash drive, then press ENTER. Finally, save the file to the flash drive after making certain the flash drive has properly mounted by parsing the output of df. Converting for loops to while and until loops Convert the for loops in to while loops. Hint: store the data in an array and step through the array elements. Having already done the heavy lifting, now convert the loops in the example to until loops. Changing the line spacing of a text file Write a script that reads each line of a target file, then writes the line back to stdout, but with an extra blank line following. This has the effect of double-spacing the file. Include all necessary code to check whether the script gets the necessary command line argument (a filename), and whether the specified file exists. When the script runs correctly, modify it to triple-space the target file. Finally, write a script to remove all blank lines from the target file, single-spacing it. Backwards Listing Write a script that echoes itself to stdout, but backwards. Automatically Decompressing Files Given a list of filenames as input, this script queries each target file (parsing the output of the file command) for the type of compression used on it. Then the script automatically invokes the appropriate decompression command (gunzip, bunzip2, unzip, uncompress, or whatever). If a target file is not compressed, the script emits a warning message, but takes no other action on that particular file. Unique System ID Generate a unique 6-digit hexadecimal identifier for your computer. Do not use the flawed hostid command. Hint: md5sum /etc/passwd, then select the first 6 digits of output. Backup Archive as a tarball (*.tar.gz file) all the files in your home directory tree (/home/your-name) that have been modified in the last 24 hours. Hint: use find. Checking whether a process is still running Given a process ID (PID) as an argument, this script will check, at user-specified intervals, whether the given process is still running. You may use the ps and sleep commands. Primes Print (to stdout) all prime numbers between 60000 and 63000. The output should be nicely formatted in columns (hint: use printf). Lottery Numbers One type of lottery involves picking five different numbers, in the range of 1 - 50. Write a script that generates five pseudorandom numbers in this range, with no duplicates. The script will give the option of echoing the numbers to stdout or saving them to a file, along with the date and time the particular number set was generated. (If your script consistently generates winning lottery numbers, then you can retire on your earnings and leave shell scripting to those of us who have to work for a living.) <anchor id="exmedium1">INTERMEDIATE Integer or String Write a script function that determines if an argument passed to it is an integer or a string. The function will return TRUE (0) if passed an integer, and FALSE (1) if passed a string. Hint: What does the following expression return when $1 is not an integer? expr $1 + 0 Managing Disk Space List, one at a time, all files larger than 100K in the /home/username directory tree. Give the user the option to delete or compress the file, then proceed to show the next one. Write to a logfile the names of all deleted files and the deletion times. Banner Simulate the functionality of the deprecated banner command in a script. Removing Inactive Accounts Inactive accounts on a network waste disk space and may become a security risk. Write an administrative script (to be invoked by root or the cron daemon) that checks for and deletes user accounts that have not been accessed within the last 90 days. Enforcing Disk Quotas Write a script for a multi-user system that checks users' disk usage. If a user surpasses a preset limit (100 MB, for example) in her /home/username directory, then the script automatically sends her a warning e-mail. The script will use the du and mail commands. As an option, it will allow setting and enforcing quotas using the quota and setquota commands. Logged in User Information For all logged in users, show their real names and the time and date of their last login. Hint: use who, lastlog, and parse /etc/passwd. Safe Delete Implement, as a script, a safe delete command, sdel.sh. Filenames passed as command-line arguments to this script are not deleted, but instead gzipped if not already compressed (use file to check), then moved to a ~/TRASH directory. Upon invocation, the script checks the ~/TRASH directory for files older than 48 hours and permanently deletes them. (An better alternative might be to have a second script handle this, periodically invoked by the cron daemon.) Extra credit: Write the script so it can handle files and directories recursively. This would give it the capability of safely deleting entire directory structures. Making Change What is the most efficient way to make change for $1.68, using only coins in common circulations (up to 25c)? It's 6 quarters, 1 dime, a nickel, and three cents. Given any arbitrary command line input in dollars and cents ($*.??), calculate the change, using the minimum number of coins. If your home country is not the United States, you may use your local currency units instead. The script will need to parse the command line input, then change it to multiples of the smallest monetary unit (cents or whatever). Hint: look at . Quadratic Equations Solve a quadratic equation of the form Ax^2 + Bx + C = 0. Have a script take as arguments the coefficients, A, B, and C, and return the solutions to four decimal places. Hint: pipe the coefficients to bc, using the well-known formula, x = ( -B +/- sqrt( B^2 - 4AC ) ) / 2A. Table of Logarithms Using the bc and printf commands, print out a nicely-formatted table of eight-place natural logarithms in the interval between 0.00 and 100.00, in steps of .01. Hint: bc requires the option to load the math library. Sum of Matching Numbers Find the sum of all five-digit numbers (in the range 10000 - 99999) containing exactly two out of the following set of digits: { 4, 5, 6 }. These may repeat within the same number, and if so, they count once for each occurrence. Some examples of matching numbers are 42057, 74638, and 89515. Lucky Numbers A lucky number is one whose individual digits add up to 7, in successive additions. For example, 62431 is a lucky number (6 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 1 = 16, 1 + 6 = 7). Find all the lucky numbers between 1000 and 10000. Craps Borrowing the ASCII graphics from , write a script that plays the well-known gambling game of craps. The script will accept bets from one or more players, roll the dice, and keep track of wins and losses, as well as of each player's bankroll. Tic-tac-toe Write a script that plays the child's game of tic-tac-toe against a human player. The script will let the human choose whether to take the first move. The script will follow an optimal strategy, and therefore never lose. To simplify matters, you may use ASCII graphics: o | x | ---------- | x | ---------- | o | Your move, human (row, column)? Alphabetizing a String Alphabetize (in ASCII order) an arbitrary string read from the command line. Parsing Parse /etc/passwd, and output its contents in nice, easy-to-read tabular form. Logging Logins Parse /var/log/messages to produce a nicely formatted file of user logins and login times. The script may need to run as root. (Hint: Search for the string LOGIN.) Pretty-Printing a Data File Certain database and spreadsheet packages use save-files with comma-separated values (CSVs). Other applications often need to parse these files. Given a data file with comma-separated fields, of the form: Jones,Bill,235 S. Williams St.,Denver,CO,80221,(303) 244-7989 Smith,Tom,404 Polk Ave.,Los Angeles,CA,90003,(213) 879-5612 ... Reformat the data and print it out to stdout in labeled, evenly-spaced columns. Justification Given ASCII text input either from stdin or a file, adjust the word spacing to right-justify each line to a user-specified line-width, then send the output to stdout. Mailing List Using the mail command, write a script that manages a simple mailing list. The script automatically e-mails the monthly company newsletter, read from a specified text file, and sends it to all the addresses on the mailing list, which the script reads from another specified file. Generating Passwords Generate pseudorandom 8-character passwords, using characters in the ranges [0-9], [A-Z], [a-z]. Each password must contain at least two digits. Monitoring a User You suspect that one particular user on the network has been abusing his privileges and possibly attempting to hack the system. Write a script to automatically monitor and log his activities when he's signed on. The log file will save entries for the previous week, and delete those entries more than seven days old. You may use last, lastlog, and lastcomm to aid your surveillance of the suspected malefactor. Checking for Broken Links Using lynx with the option, write a script that checks a Web site for broken links. <anchor id="exdifficult1">DIFFICULT Testing Passwords Write a script to check and validate passwords. The object is to flag weak or easily guessed password candidates. A trial password will be input to the script as a command line parameter. To be considered acceptable, a password must meet the following minimum qualifications: Minimum length of 8 characters Must contain at least one numeric character Must contain at least one of the following non-alphabetic characters: @, #, $, %, &, *, +, -, = Optional: Do a dictionary check on every sequence of at least four consecutive alphabetic characters in the password under test. This will eliminate passwords containing embedded words found in a standard dictionary. Enable the script to check all the passwords on your system. These may or may not reside in /etc/passwd. This exercise tests mastery of Regular Expressions. Cross Reference Write a script that generates a cross-reference (concordance) on a target file. The output will be a listing of all word occurrences in the target file, along with the line numbers in which each word occurs. Traditionally, linked list constructs would be used in such applications. Therefore, you should investigate arrays in the course of this exercise. is probably not a good place to start. Square Root Write a script to calculate square roots of numbers using Newton's Method. The algorithm for this, expressed as a snippet of Bash pseudo-code is: # (Isaac) Newton's Method for speedy extraction #+ of square roots. guess = $argument # $argument is the number to find the square root of. # $guess is each successive calculated "guess" -- or trial solution -- #+ of the square root. # Our first "guess" at a square root is the argument itself. oldguess = 0 # $oldguess is the previous $guess. tolerance = .000001 # To how close a tolerance we wish to calculate. loopcnt = 0 # Let's keep track of how many times through the loop. # Some arguments will require more loop iterations than others. while [ ABS( $guess $oldguess ) -gt $tolerance ] # ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Fix up syntax, of course. # "ABS" is a (floating point) function to find the absolute value #+ of the difference between the two terms. # So, as long as difference between current and previous #+ trial solution (guess) exceeds the tolerance, keep looping. do oldguess = $guess # Update $oldguess to previous $guess. # ======================================================= guess = ( $oldguess + ( $argument / $oldguess ) ) / 2.0 # = 1/2 ( ($oldguess **2 + $argument) / $oldguess ) # equivalent to: # = 1/2 ( $oldguess + $argument / $oldguess ) # that is, "averaging out" the trial solution and #+ the proportion of argument deviation #+ (in effect, splitting the error in half). # This converges on an accurate solution #+ with surprisingly few loop iterations . . . #+ for arguments > $tolerance, of course. # ======================================================= (( loopcnt++ )) # Update loop counter. done It's a simple enough recipe, and seems at first glance easy enough to convert into a working Bash script. The problem, though, is that Bash has no native support for floating point numbers. So, the script writer needs to use bc or possibly awk to convert the numbers and do the calculations. It may get rather messy . . . Logging File Accesses Log all accesses to the files in /etc during the course of a single day. This information should include the filename, user name, and access time. If any alterations to the files take place, that should be flagged. Write this data as neatly formatted records in a logfile. Monitoring Processes Write a script to continually monitor all running processes and to keep track of how many child processes each parent spawns. If a process spawns more than five children, then the script sends an e-mail to the system administrator (or root) with all relevant information, including the time, PID of the parent, PIDs of the children, etc. The script appends a report to a log file every ten minutes. Strip Comments Strip all comments from a shell script whose name is specified on the command line. Note that the #! line must not be stripped out. Strip HTML Tags Strip all HTML tags from a specified HTML file, then reformat it into lines between 60 and 75 characters in length. Reset paragraph and block spacing, as appropriate, and convert HTML tables to their approximate text equivalent. XML Conversion Convert an XML file to both HTML and text format. Chasing Spammers Write a script that analyzes a spam e-mail by doing DNS lookups on the IP addresses in the headers to identify the relay hosts as well as the originating ISP. The script will forward the unaltered spam message to the responsible ISPs. Of course, it will be necessary to filter out your own ISP's IP address, so you don't end up complaining about yourself. As necessary, use the appropriate network analysis commands. For some ideas, see and . Optional: Write a script that searches through a list of e-mail messages and deletes the spam according to specified filters. Creating man pages Write a script that automates the process of creating man pages. Given a text file which contains information to be formatted into a man page, the script will read the file, then invoke the appropriate groff commands to output the corresponding man page to stdout. The text file contains blocks of information under the standard man page headings, i.e., NAME, SYNOPSIS, DESCRIPTION, etc. is an instructive first step. Morse Code Convert a text file to Morse code. Each character of the text file will be represented as a corresponding Morse code group of dots and dashes (underscores), separated by whitespace from the next. For example: Invoke the "morse.sh" script with "script" as an argument to convert to Morse. $ sh morse.sh script ... _._. ._. .. .__. _ s c r i p t Hex Dump Do a hex(adecimal) dump on a binary file specified as an argument. The output should be in neat tabular fields, with the first field showing the address, each of the next 8 fields a 4-byte hex number, and the final field the ASCII equivalent of the previous 8 fields. The obvious followup to this is to extend the hex dump script into a disassembler. Using a lookup table, or some other clever gimmick, convert the hex values into 80x86 op codes. Emulating a Shift Register Using as an inspiration, write a script that emulates a 64-bit shift register as an array. Implement functions to load the register, shift left, shift right, and rotate it. Finally, write a function that interprets the register contents as eight 8-bit ASCII characters. Calculating Determinants Write a script that calculates determinants For all you fine people who failed second-year algebra, a determinant is a numerical quantity associated with a multidimensional matrix (array of numbers). For the simple case of a 2 x 2 determinant: |a b| |b a| The solution is a*a - b*b, where "a" and "b" represent numbers. by recursively expanding the minors. Use a 4 x 4 determinant as a test case. Hidden Words Write a word-find puzzle generator, a script that hides 10 input words in a 10 x 10 array of random letters. The words may be hidden across, down, or diagonally. Optional: Write a script that solves word-find puzzles. To keep this from becoming too difficult, the solution script will find only horizontal and vertical words. (Hint: Treat each row and column as a string, and search for substrings.) Anagramming Anagram 4-letter input. For example, the anagrams of word are: do or rod row word. You may use /usr/share/dict/linux.words as the reference list. Word Ladders A word ladder is a sequence of words, with each successive word in the sequence differing from the previous one by a single letter. For example, to ladder from mark to vase: mark --> park --> part --> past --> vast --> vase ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Write a script that solves word ladder puzzles. Given a starting and an ending word, the script will list all intermediate steps in the ladder. Note that all words in the sequence must be legitimate dictionary words. Fog Index The fog index of a passage of text estimates its reading difficulty, as a number corresponding roughly to a school grade level. For example, a passage with a fog index of 12 should be comprehensible to anyone with 12 years of schooling. The Gunning version of the fog index uses the following algorithm. Choose a section of the text at least 100 words in length. Count the number of sentences (a portion of a sentence truncated by the boundary of the text section counts as one). Find the average number of words per sentence. AVE_WDS_SEN = TOTAL_WORDS / SENTENCES Count the number of difficult words in the segment -- those containing at least 3 syllables. Divide this quantity by total words to get the proportion of difficult words. PRO_DIFF_WORDS = LONG_WORDS / TOTAL_WORDS The Gunning fog index is the sum of the above two quantities, multiplied by 0.4, then rounded to the nearest integer. G_FOG_INDEX = int ( 0.4 * ( AVE_WDS_SEN + PRO_DIFF_WORDS ) ) Step 4 is by far the most difficult portion of the exercise. There exist various algorithms for estimating the syllable count of a word. A rule-of-thumb formula might consider the number of letters in a word and the vowel-consonant mix. A strict interpretation of the Gunning fog index does not count compound words and proper nouns as difficult words, but this would enormously complicate the script. Calculating PI using Buffon's Needle The Eighteenth Century French mathematician de Buffon came up with a novel experiment. Repeatedly drop a needle of length n onto a wooden floor composed of long and narrow parallel boards. The cracks separating the equal-width floorboards are a fixed distance d apart. Keep track of the total drops and the number of times the needle intersects a crack on the floor. The ratio of these two quantities turns out to be a fractional multiple of PI. In the spirit of , write a script that runs a Monte Carlo simulation of Buffon's Needle. To simplify matters, set the needle length equal to the distance between the cracks, n = d. Hint: there are actually two critical variables: the distance from the center of the needle to the nearest crack, and the inclination angle of the needle to that crack. You may use bc to handle the calculations. Playfair Cipher Implement the Playfair (Wheatstone) Cipher in a script. The Playfair Cipher encrypts text by substitution of digrams (2-letter groupings). It is traditional to use a 5 x 5 letter scrambled-alphabet key square for the encryption and decryption. C O D E S A B F G H I K L M N P Q R T U V W X Y Z Each letter of the alphabet appears once, except "I" also represents "J". The arbitrarily chosen key word, "CODES" comes first, then all the rest of the alphabet, in order from left to right, skipping letters already used. To encrypt, separate the plaintext message into digrams (2-letter groups). If a group has two identical letters, delete the second, and form a new group. If there is a single letter left over at the end, insert a "null" character, typically an "X." THIS IS A TOP SECRET MESSAGE TH IS IS AT OP SE CR ET ME SA GE For each digram, there are three possibilities. ----------------------------------------------- 1) Both letters will be on the same row of the key square: For each letter, substitute the one immediately to the right, in that row. If necessary, wrap around left to the beginning of the row. or 2) Both letters will be in the same column of the key square: For each letter, substitute the one immediately below it, in that row. If necessary, wrap around to the top of the column. or 3) Both letters will form the corners of a rectangle within the key square: For each letter, substitute the one on the other corner the rectangle which lies on the same row. The "TH" digram falls under case #3. G H M N T U (Rectangle with "T" and "H" at corners) T --> U H --> G The "SE" digram falls under case #1. C O D E S (Row containing "S" and "E") S --> C (wraps around left to beginning of row) E --> S ========================================================================= To decrypt encrypted text, reverse the above procedure under cases #1 and #2 (move in opposite direction for substitution). Under case #3, just take the remaining two corners of the rectangle. Helen Fouche Gaines' classic work, ELEMENTARY CRYPTANALYSIS (1939), gives a fairly detailed description of the Playfair Cipher and its solution methods. This script will have three main sections Generating the key square, based on a user-input keyword. Encrypting a plaintext message. Decrypting encrypted text. The script will make extensive use of arrays and functions. -- Please do not send the author your solutions to these exercises. There are more appropriate ways to impress him with your cleverness, such as submitting bugfixes and suggestions for improving this book. Revision History This document first appeared as a 60-page HOWTO in the late spring of 2000. Since then, it has gone through quite a number of updates and revisions. This book could not have been written without the assistance of the Linux community, and especially of the volunteers of the Linux Documentation Project. Here is the e-mail to the LDP requesting permission to submit version 0.1. From thegrendel@theriver.com Sat Jun 10 09:05:33 2000 -0700 Date: Sat, 10 Jun 2000 09:05:28 -0700 (MST) From: "M. Leo Cooper" <thegrendel@theriver.com> X-Sender: thegrendel@localhost To: ldp-discuss@lists.linuxdoc.org Subject: Permission to submit HOWTO Dear HOWTO Coordinator, I am working on and would like to submit to the LDP a HOWTO on the subject of "Bash Scripting" (shell scripting, using 'bash'). As it happens, I have been writing this document, off and on, for about the last eight months or so, and I could produce a first draft in ASCII text format in a matter of just a few more days. I began writing this out of frustration at being unable to find a decent book on shell scripting. I managed to locate some pretty good articles on various aspects of scripting, but nothing like a complete, beginning-to-end tutorial. Well, in keeping with my philosophy, if all else fails, do it yourself. As it stands, this proposed "Bash-Scripting HOWTO" would serve as a combination tutorial and reference, with the heavier emphasis on the tutorial. It assumes Linux experience, but only a very basic level of programming skills. Interspersed with the text are 79 illustrative example scripts of varying complexity, all liberally commented. There are even exercises for the reader. At this stage, I'm up to 18,000+ words (124k), and that's over 50 pages of text (whew!). I haven't mentioned that I've previously authored an LDP HOWTO, the "Software-Building HOWTO", which I wrote in Linuxdoc/SGML. I don't know if I could handle Docbook/SGML, and I'm glad you have volunteers to do the conversion. You people seem to have gotten on a more organized basis these last few months. Working with Greg Hankins and Tim Bynum was nice, but a professional team is even nicer. Anyhow, please advise. Mendel Cooper thegrendel@theriver.com Revision History Release Date Comments 0.1 14 Jun 2000 Initial release. 30 Oct 2000 Bugs fixed, plus much additional material and more example scripts. 12 Feb 2001 Major update. 08 Jul 2001 Complete revision and expansion of the book. 03 Sep 2001 Major update: Bugfixes, material added, sections reorganized. 14 Oct 2001 Stable release: Bugfixes, reorganization, material added. 06 Jan 2002 Bugfixes, material and scripts added. 31 Mar 2002 Bugfixes, material and scripts added. 02 Jun 2002 TANGERINE release: A few bugfixes, much more material and scripts added. 16 Jun 2002 MANGO release: A number of typos fixed, more material and scripts. 13 Jul 2002 PAPAYA release: A few bugfixes, much more material and scripts added. 29 Sep 2002 POMEGRANATE release: Bugfixes, more material, one more script. 05 Jan 2003 COCONUT release: A couple of bugfixes, more material, one more script. 10 May 2003 BREADFRUIT release: A number of bugfixes, more scripts and material. 21 Jun 2003 PERSIMMON release: Bugfixes, and more material. 24 Aug 2003 GOOSEBERRY release: Major update. 14 Sep 2003 HUCKLEBERRY release: Bugfixes, and more material. 31 Oct 2003 CRANBERRY release: Major update. 03 Jan 2004 STRAWBERRY release: Bugfixes and more material. 25 Jan 2004 MUSKMELON release: Bugfixes. 15 Feb 2004 STARFRUIT release: Bugfixes and more material. 15 Mar 2004 SALAL release: Minor update. 18 Apr 2004 MULBERRY release: Minor update. 11 Jul 2004 ELDERBERRY release: Minor update. 03 Oct 2004 LOGANBERRY release: Major update. 14 Nov 2004 BAYBERRY release: Bugfix update. 06 Feb 2005 BLUEBERRY release: Minor update. 20 Mar 2005 RASPBERRY release: Bugfixes, much material added. 08 May 2005 TEABERRY release: Bugfixes, stylistic revisions. 05 Jun 2005 BOXBERRY release: Bugfixes, some material added. 28 Aug 2005 POKEBERRY release: Bugfixes, some material added. 23 Oct 2005 WHORTLEBERRY release: Bugfixes, some material added. 26 Feb 2006 BLAEBERRY release: Bugfixes, some material added. 15 May 2006 SPICEBERRY release: Bugfixes, some material added. 18 Jun 2006 WINTERBERRY release: Major reorganization. 08 Oct 2006 WAXBERRY release: Minor update. 10 Dec 2006 SPARKLEBERRY release: Important update. 29 Apr 2007 INKBERRY release: Bugfixes, material added. 24 Jun 2007 SERVICEBERRY release: Major update. 10 Nov 2007 LINGONBERRY release: Minor update. 16 Mar 2008 SILVERBERRY release: Important update. 11 May 2008 GOLDENBERRY release: Minor update. 21 Jul 2008 ANGLEBERRY release: Minor update.

Mirror Sites The latest update of this document, as an archived tarball including both the SGML source and rendered HTML, may be downloaded from the author's home site. The main mirror site for this document is the Linux Documentation Project, which maintains many other Guides and HOWTOs as well. Yet another mirror site for this document is morethan.org. You can download the pdf version here. To Do List A comprehensive survey of incompatibilities between Bash and the classic Bourne shell. Same as above, but for the Korn shell (ksh). A primer on CGI programming, using Bash. Here is a simple CGI script to get you started. Print the server environment &testcgi; Copyright The Advanced Bash Scripting Guide is copyright 2000, by Mendel Cooper. The ISBN of the print edition of this book is 978-1-4357-5219-1. The author also asserts copyright on all previous versions of this document. The author intends that this book be released into the Public Domain after a period of 14 years from initial publication, that is, in 2014. In the early years of the American republic this was the duration statutorily granted to a copyrighted work. This blanket copyright recognizes and protects the rights of all contributors to this document. This document may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License (version 1.0 or later), http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/. The following license options also apply. A. Distribution of substantively modified versions of this document is permitted only under the following provisions. A1. The modified document must clearly indicate that it is derivative of the original Advanced Bash Scripting Guide, and the original author, Mendel Cooper, must be listed as the primary author. A2. The modified or derivative document must clearly indicate which portions of the text differ or deviate from the original document. A notice must be present, stating that the original author does not necessarily endorse the changes to the original. A3. The modified or derivative document must be distributed under this same license, and the original author's copyright, as applicable, may not be modified. B. This document, or any modified or derivative version thereof, may NOT be distributed encrypted or with any form of DRM (Digital Rights Management) or content-control mechanism embedded in it. Nor may this document or any derivative thereof be bundled with other DRM-ed works. C. If this document (or any previous version or derivative thereof) is made available on a Web or ftp site, then the file(s) must be publicly accessible. No password or other access restrictions to its download may be imposed. D. Distribution of the original work in any standard (paper) book form requires permission from the copyright holder. E. In the event that the author or maintainer of this document cannot be contacted, the Linux Documentation Project is authorized to take over custodianship of the document and name a new maintainer, who would then have the right to update and modify the document. Without explicit written permission from the author, distributors and publishers (including on-line publishers) are prohibited from imposing any additional conditions, strictures, or provisions on this document, any previous versions, or any derivative versions. As of this update, the author asserts that he has not entered into any contractual obligations that would alter the foregoing declarations. Essentially, you may freely distribute this book or any derivative thereof in electronic form. If you display or distribute this document, any previous versions thereof, or any derivatives thereof under any license except the one above, then you are required to obtain the author's written permission. Failure to do so may terminate your distribution rights. Additionally, the following waiver applies: By copying or distributing this book YOU WAIVE THE RIGHT to use the materials within, or any portion thereof, in a patent or copyright lawsuit against the Open Source community, its developers, its distributors, or against any of its associated software or documentation including, but not limited to, the Linux kernel, Open Office, Samba, and Wine. You further waive the right to use any of the materials within this book in testimony or depositions as a plaintiff's "expert witness" in any lawsuit against the Open Source community, any of its developers, its distributors, or any of its associated software or documentation. These are very liberal terms, and they should not hinder any legitimate distribution or use of this book. The author especially encourages its use for classroom and instructional purposes. Certain of the scripts contained in this document are, where noted, in the Public Domain. These scripts are exempt from the foregoing license and copyright restrictions. The commercial print and other rights to this book are available. Please contact the author if interested. The author produced this book in a manner consistent with the spirit of the LDP Manifesto. Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds. Fedora is a trademark registered to Red Hat. Unix and UNIX are trademarks registered to the Open Group. MS Windows is a trademark registered to the Microsoft Corp. Solaris is a trademark registered to Sun, Inc. OSX is a trademark registered to Apple, Inc. Yahoo is a trademark registered to Yahoo, Inc. Pentium is a trademark registered to Intel, Inc. Thinkpad is a trademark registered to Lenovo, Inc. Scrabble is a trademark registered to Hasbro, Inc. Librie, PRS-500, and PRS-505 are trademarks registered to Sony, Inc. All other commercial trademarks mentioned in the body of this work are registered to their respective owners. Hyun Jin Cha has done a Korean translation of version 1.0.11 of this book. Spanish, Portuguese, French, German, Italian, Russian, Czech, Chinese, Indonesian, and Dutch translations are also available or in progress. If you wish to translate this document into another language, please feel free to do so, subject to the terms stated above. The author wishes to be notified of such efforts. ASCII Table In a book of this sort it is traditional to have an ASCII Table appendix. This book does not. Instead, here is a short shell script that generates a complete ASCII table and writes it to the file ASCII.txt. A script that generates an ASCII table &asciish; &INDEX00;